Thermodynamics ME10003: DR Kevin Robinson (4E 2.25)

Thermodynamics
ME10003
Dr Kevin Robinson (4E 2.25)
October 2021
ME10003 - Thermodynamics 1
Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics
Scope of course
1. Introduction, Basic Concepts and Definitions

2. The 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
3. Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
4. Processes and Cycles for Closed Systems
5. First Law of Thermodynamics and the Non-Flow
Energy Equation
6. Reversible and Irreversible Processes
7. Work Done in Reversible Processes
Thermodynamics
- Scope of course (cont’d)
8. Specific Heat Capacities of Gases

9. Steady Flow Systems
10. Applications of Steady Flow Energy Equation
11. Second Law of Thermodynamics
12. Entropy
13. Heat Engines
14. Standard Air Cycles
Thermodynamics
Recommended Reading
1. Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach

• Cengel & Boles
2. Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering
Technologists
• Eastop & McConkey
3. Engineering Thermodynamics, Work and Heat
Transfer
• Rogers & Mayhew
1. Introduction
• Developed as a science
What is around 1700 as scientists
tried to improve the
“Thermodynamics”? performance of early steam
• Greek words engines
– therme (heat)
- dynamis (power)
• Thermodynamics is the science

of heat energy transformations
Introduction
Some Example Applications of Thermodynamics
Introduction
All these devices involve energy transformations in
the form of heat and work
Key questions for engineers:
•How efficient are these devices?

•What physical laws govern how energy
transformations occur?
•What are the limits on what we can do?
•What can we do to maximise their efficiency?
•This is the domain of “Thermodynamics”

Basic Concepts and Definitions
• Thermodynamic system
– A region within prescribed boundaries

containing a quantity of matter whose
behaviour is being investigated
• Closed system (Non-flow processes)

• Boundaries are such that only heat and work
can cross them
• Boundaries formed by a piston and cylinder
Cylinder Piston
Movement of piston
Working fluid
• Open system (Flow processes)

• Boundaries are such the working fluid can
cross them in addition to heat and work
• A compressor or turbine
Imaginary boundaries
Solid boundary
Inlet of the Discharge of the

working fluid working fluid
• Boundaries
• Separate the working fluid from its
surroundings
• Can be solid or imaginary
• Surroundings
• Those portions external to the system
• Working Fluid
• Can be a liquid, a gas (e.g. air), a vapour (e.g.
steam) or a mixture of gases that do not react
chemically with each other
The state of the working fluid can be

defined by a set of unique properties
• Pressure (p) - N/m2, Pa
• Temperature (T) - K, ºC
• Volume (V) – m3
• Specific Volume (v) m3/kg or density (ρ) kg/m3
–“Specific” means per unit mass (lower case

letters generally used)
Thermodynamic properties may be classified as either

Intensive and Extensive Properties
Extensive properties are ones that depend on the

“extent” of the system, Intensive properties do not
Example 1 – Intensive and Extensive
Thermodynamic Properties
• Thermodynamic temperature scale
• Centigrade scale based on arbitrary but

convenient zero point
• The freezing point of water at atmospheric pressure
• In thermodynamics the Kelvin scale is
always used for temperature
• At zero Kelvin (0 K) matter has zero “internal energy”
• Temperature in K is also called an Absolute Temperature
Absolute Zero
p versus T plots of
the experimental
data obtained from a
constant-volume gas
thermometer using
four different gases
at different (but low)
pressures.
Example 2 – Gauge and
Absolute Pressures
• In thermodynamics, absolute temperature and absolute pressure are
used
• Specific volume often used in thermodynamics (v) m3/kg
• Density used in fluid mechanics
• Preference for use can be related to closed and   1systems

open v kg / m 3
• Adiabatic = No heat transfer occurs
• Other specific terms which will be used later in unit

• Specific internal energy u
• Specific enthalpy h
• Specific entropy s
2. The 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
• In Mechanical Engineering we are really

only concerned with the First and
Second Laws, which we will explore
throughout this unit
• For the sake of completeness, there are

actually 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
The 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth Law (date: 1931)

• Concept of Temperature
• First Law (date: 1850 ish)
• Energy conservation
• Second Law (date: 1850 ish)
• Distribution of energy changes in an irreversible manner
• Third Law (date: 1906)
• Matter cannot be brought to a temperature of absolute
zero in a finite number of steps
The 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth Law
If then
A C
A C
Thermal
Equilibrium
B
ie A, B and C are at the same “Temperature”

The Laws of Thermodynamics
Alternatively:
First Law : “You cannot win, you can only break even”
Second Law: “You can only break even at absolute zero”
Third Law “You cannot reach absolute zero”
(Source: Scientific American, March 1964 p 40A)
3. Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
Kinetic theory of gases (“ideal” or “perfect” gases):

• Any gas will expand to fill the space available to it
• A gas consists of many rapidly moving, perfectly
elastic, infinitely small molecules which take up
negligible space
• A gas is homogeneous
Example 3 – Kinetic Theory of
Gases
Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
• Ideal Gas Laws:

– Boyles Law: p  1/V for fixed mass and
Temperature
– Charles Law: T  V for fixed mass and pressure
– It follows that p  T for fixed mass and Volume

(i.e. if you were to heat gas in a sealed canister it
will eventually explode – p increases with T if V
is fixed)
• Equation of State for a Perfect Gas
• If any of the properties of the working fluid are

changed then the state of the working fluid will change
• It has been shown that the state of the working fluid

can be defined through TWO of the properties
• The Equation of State can be written in a number of

forms
pV  mRT
Ie Temperature is proportional to the square of molecular velocity
• Other forms
pv  RT
Since v = V/m
• Or
p /   RT
Since ρ = m/V
Many statements of the equation of state may lead to confusion.
For most thermodynamics problems, the most useful statement is:
pV = m R T
where:
p is the absolute gas pressure (N/m2 or Pa)
V is the total gas Volume (m3)
m is the mass of gas (kg)
R is the gas constant FOR THE GAS IN THE PROBLEM (J/kgK)
T is the absolute Temperature (K)
Pay attention to the units!
• In Chemistry it is often convenient to
write the equation of state in terms of
the number of moles, n
pV  nRoT
• Now Ro is the Universal Gas Constant
• Ro = 8.314 kJ/kg-mol K (= 8.314 J/mol K)
(Note kg-mol means 1000 moles)
• Top 3 mistakes when using the

equation of state
1. Confusing R with R0
2. Forgetting to convert temp in °C to K
3. Confusing Absolute with Gauge Pressure
Avogadro’s constant :
Defined as the number of molecules in a mole of any

substance – 6.022 x10 23
This is a truly enormous number, roughly equal to*:
-The number of popcorn kernels needed to cover the USA

to a depth of nine miles
-The number of cupfuls of water in the Pacific Ocean
-The number of soft drink cans that would cover the

surface of the Earth to a depth of 200 miles
(*Source: Bryson – A Short History of Nearly Everything, 2003, p139)
-
Examples 4 and 5 - Equation
of State for a Perfect Gas
• The equation of state is only applicable to ‘Perfect
Gases’
– Assumptions break down at high pressures –

molecular volume not negligible, collisions not
perfectly elastic:
• eg nitrogen at room temp – Ideal gas Equation of

state accurate to 0.5 % up to 10 MPa
• Nitrogen at 200°C and 10 MPa deviation up to 4%
A major exception which will be encountered
later (Thermal Power – Year 2) is that of
vapours, particularly steam.
Vapour – a gas that can be condensed to a liquid by

increasing the pressure without reducing the
temperature
With vapours it is necessary to use ‘Tables of Properties’

(“Steam Tables”) instead of equation of state
4. Processes and Cycles for Closed
Systems
• Any change that a system undergoes from one

equilibrium state to another is called a ‘Process’
• A thermodynamic cycle is complete when the system

state returns to that at the beginning
Processes and Cycles for Closed
Systems
• Any change that a system undergoes from one
equilibrium state to another is called a process.
• The change in pressure, Volume and Temperature of

an ideal gas from p1 , V1 and T1 to p2 , V2 and T2 is called
a process
• 1 is the initial state
• 2 is the final state
• The state of the system is defined by any two

parameters out of p, V and T since the third can be
found from the equation of state
Systems
• p – V diagram for a compression

process
2. Final State
p
Process path – solid line implies the
system went through all the
equilibrium states in between 1 and 2
1. Initial state
Win
Systems
• Work and Heat
• Work W, the transfer of energy across the system

boundary by virtue of the movement of a force
• Heat Q, the transfer of energy across the system

boundary by virtue of a temperature difference
Systems
1. Initial state Process path
p
3
2. Compression work input

2
Win
3. Heat input at constant volume 1
V
Qin
Example 6 – Special Cases of
Changes of State for a Perfect
Gas
Processes and Cycles for
Closed Systems
General Reversible Ideal Gas Process
We have considered the special cases of constant volume

and constant pressure energy interactions, but a more
general expression is required for general circumstances
in which p, V and T all change – a “polytropic” process.
Systems
Polytropic Processes
Many non-flow reversible processes can be described by the
empirical relationship:
pV n = c (constant ) “polytropic” process
For an ideal gas being compressed, expanded, heated or cooled
from p1 V1 T1 to p2 V2 T2, then
p1 V1n = p2 V2n
(and, if required, T1 = p1V1/ mR and T2 = p2V2/ mR ) The index n will

vary depending on the rate of heat transfer in the process
Examples 7 and 8 - Polytropic
Processes and Derivation of
the Polytropic Indices for the
Special Cases
Processes and Cycles for Closed Systems
Polytropic Processes
Reversible Constant pressure, constant volume and
constant temperature and reversible adiabatic cases are
just special cases of a polytropic process, described by:

pV n = constant
1. Constant pressure (isobaric) n = 0
2. Constant Temperature (isothermal) n =1
3. Constant Volume (isochoric) n = 

4. Reversible adiabatic (isentropic) n =  (= cp/cv)
Systems
Constant V “isochoric” pV  = C
Note that the
Pressure polytropic index is
Constant T related to the
gradient of the line
“isothermal”
pV 1 = C
Constant P “isobaric”
pV 0 = C
Constant S “isentropic” pV  = C
Volume
Systems
A cycle is a collection of processes which end up with
the system in its original state
p p
A two-process cycle 3 A four-process cycle
2
4
1 1
v v
“If a closed system undergoes a series of processes such that the initial and
final states of the system are the same, the system has undergone a cycle”
Example 9 – A Thermodynamic
Cycle
5. The First Law of Thermodynamics
• The First Law of Thermodynamics (approx. 1850)
When a system undergoes a thermodynamic cycle the net
heat supplied to the system from its surroundings plus the
net work input to the system from its surroundings must
equal zero
• The First Law PRE-dates the conservation of energy

principle, and was a key step in establishing it.
• When a cycle is completed the amount of energy

supplied to the system must equal the amount of
energy extracted
The History of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics
• The First Law of Thermodynamics can be

written as
Qin  Win  Qout  Wout  0
• Note energy transfers in are positive and
transfers out are negative
• This applies to a thermodynamic cycle
• Corollary of the First Law

• It can be deduced that for a change of state for a closed
system, from state 1 to state 2, the net energy transfer to
(or from) the system (heat or work) is equal to the net
increase (or decrease) in the energy that the system
possesses
• This is the conservation of energy principle
Q12  W12  U 2  U1
• This expression is known as the

• Non-Flow Energy Equation (NFEE)
• U is referred to as the internal energy

– (or u = specific internal energy)
• The internal energy of the system is a property of the

system
• It is the energy the system possesses by virtue of its

temperature only
• Sign Convention
• Energy supplied TO the system from the

surroundings in the form of heat or work is
POSITIVE
• Energy supplied BY the system to the surroundings

in the form of heat or work is NEGATIVE
• (Note - the opposite sign convention is used in

some places eg USA – beware)
Analogy between the NFEE and bank account
+Q -Q
+ Cash - Cash
U
 Balance
+W - W + Cheque - Cheque
Inputs POSITIVE (+) (easy to remember!)

Outputs NEGATIVE ( - )
Example 10 – Internal Energy
6. Reversible and Irreversible
Processes
• Reversible Process
• As the name implies these can be reversed so that

both the system and the surroundings are returned
to the original condition after the process and the
reverse process are carried out
• Irreversible Process
• These are processes in which reversal cannot be

carried out without leaving some change to the
system or the surroundings
Reversible and Irreversible Processes
• In practice all real processes are irreversible
– A ball rolling down an incline will lose potential

energy and gain kinetic energy
– The reverse could be achieved by allowing the

ball to roll up a similar incline
• Ideally the ball can

return to it initial
height, i.e. the initial Lost Potential
potential energy Energy
1 Initial Position
• The reality is, that due

to friction the loss in
potential energy while 2 Final Position
rolling down the slope
will not be fully
recovered by rolling up
a similar slope
• Consider a piston/cylinder arrangement

that contains air at atmospheric
pressure and temperature
Cylinder
Win
System
Wout
• Work is done on the air forcing the

piston inwards and the air pressure and
temperature will increase
• The air is then allowed to expand back

to atmospheric pressure and work is
done on the surroundings by the piston
• To make this process fully reversible it

would be necessary to:
• Eliminate any friction between the moving

piston and the cylinder
• Make the piston move infinitesimally slowly
• Thermally insulate the system from the

surroundings
• When a system undergoes a reversible
process both the working fluid and the
surroundings can always be restored to their
original state
• All real processes are irreversible
• Often we are faced with the choice of doing

calculations for a reversible process or doing
no calculations at all
• The concept of a reversible process is

still very useful
– It provides an idealised model to which a
real process can be compared
– We can apply efficiencies or correction

factors which allow us to analyse real
systems using ideal conditions
Objective :
Use the compressed gas to raise the mass
Assumptions:
Piston mass negligible
Perfectly insulated cylinder, (no
heat transfer to surroundings)
Frictionless piston
Begin with equilibrium state
Case 1: All weight removed in one go
Before After
•Work done by gas on weight = 0

•Reversible? No – can’t push mass back onto top of
piston ME10003 - Thermodynamics 67
• p – V diagram for Case 1

Start –
equilibrium Cannot say anything about
state what happens in between
p ie Non- equilibrium states
Finish –
equilibrium
state
Case 2: Weight removed in 2 stages.
•Half the weight raised about 1/3rd of the distance

•Work done by gas on weight > 0
•Reversible? No ME10003 - Thermodynamics 69

Start –
equilibrium
state
Middle –
p equilibrium
state
No
Finish –
information
equilibrium
No
state
information
Case 3: Weight replaced by sand – grains removed very,
very slowly, one at a time.
Approx half the weight is raised about half of the

distance
Reversible? Almost ME10003 - Thermodynamics 71

Start –
equilibrium
state equilibrium
states
p
Finish –
equilibrium
state
For Case 3:
Removal of individual sand grain causes very little
change in the system – passes through equilibrium
states continuously (almost)
Process could (almost) be reversed at anytime by
putting sand grains back onto piston
Limit as sand grain mass  zero = reversible process
Work is maximised during a reversible process
• Later in the course we will encounter the

thermodynamic property “entropy”
• Entropy is closely associated with

reversibility and allows us to determine
which processes will and will not occur
7. Work Done In Reversible
Processes
• Work Done in a Reversible Expansion
– Consider the cylinder/ piston arrangement shown
d
p
p p-dp dV
V
– Small piston movement dl corresponds to small
volume change dV
Work Done In Reversible Processes
• The work done by the piston area A moving

distance dl
dW   pAdl   pdV
(since Adl = dV)
• Note the NEGATIVE sign
• The system is doing work on the surroundings
• pdV is the elemental area on the p-V diagram
Work Done In Reversible Processes
• The total work is the area under the p-V

diagram 2
W   dW    pdV
1
• Can evaluate this integral for the general

case polytropic process, and then consider
the special cases, (isothermal etc)
p2V2  p1V1
W
(Note: Strictly integration not valid for n=1) n 1
Example 11 – Work Done in
Reversible Processes
8. Specific Heat of Gases
Specific Heat Capacity of a solid is defined as the amount of
heat energy required to raise 1kg of the material by 1K
In general dQ = m c dT
where m = mass (kg)
dT = increase in temperature (K)
c = specific heat capacity (J/kgK)
Eg Gold c = 132 J/kgK at 20°C
Aluminium c = 913 J/kgK at 20 °C
Concrete c = 3350 J/kgK at 20 °C
Note that c varies with temperature – often a mean value is
used
This definition is fine for solids, but for gases we need to

specify what the gasME10003
does- as heat is added
Thermodynamics 79
Specific Heat of Gases
Internal Energy - Joule’s Experiment
Joule hypothesised that the internal energy of a

gas is a function of the absolute temperature only.
Imagine a unit mass of gas being heated at
constant volume.
NFEE du = dq + dw
Since the volume is constant, then no work is done,
dw = 0
du = dq = cv dT
Internal Energy - Joule’s Experiment
• Integrating: u = cv T + Constant
• It follows that the internal energy u is zero at
absolute zero Temperature, and so the constant =
zero
• Or for mass m of gas U = mcv T
• The gain in internal energy for a perfect gas between
any two states is always given by this relation for
ANY process, reversible or irreversible – Joules
Experiment
Joule’s Experiment
In 1843, Joule demonstrated this fact:
Two pressure vessels, connected by a pipe and
valve, were immersed in an insulated water bath.
Initially vessel A contained air at 22 atmospheres
pressure and vessel B was highly evacuated.
The valve was then opened, allowing the pressures to
equalise. After thermal equilibrium was achieved no change
in the water temperature was observed (Q =0)
Therefore no heat transferred to, or from, the air in the
vessels to the water – ie gas temperature constant
Since no work was done either (expansion into a vacuum –
nothing to “push back”  W=0) ,
But : NFEE: U = Q + W
So ΔU = 0 i.e. there must be no change in internal energy.
But pressure and volume have both changed
• Conclusion: Internal energy is only a function of

Temperature, not a function of pressure or volume
• Note: Since air does not conform precisely to the

ideal gas assumption, a small change in temperature
would be observed with very accurate
measurements
Two conditions are of special interest:
a) Reversible Constant Volume (Isochoric) Process:
Q1
Non-Flow Energy Equation (NFEE): q + w = u2 - u1

But since the volume is constant, w = 0
q = u2 - u 1
The specific heat capacity at constant volume is denoted cv
dq = cv dT for unit mass of gas
Integrating: q = cv (T2 - T1), and therefore u2 - u1 = cv dT
b) Reversible Constant Pressure (Isobaric) Process:
Q2
The specific heat capacity at constant pressure is denoted cp

When the gas is kept at constant pressure it must expand as
heat is added, and work is done on the surroundings (pushing
back the atmosphere). Therefore more heat is required than for a
constant volume process, and cp > cv
dq = cp dT for unit mass of gas
Integrating: q = cp (T2 - T1)
Constant pressure
As the gas expands, the work done by the gas in

pushing back the atmosphere is
W = - ∫ p dv = - p (v2 – v1)
(negative because the system is doing work on

surroundings)
NFEE: u2 - u1 = q + w
therefore: u2 - u1 = cp (T2 - T1) – p (v2 – v1)
• but pv = RT for unit mass of gas
therefore u2 - u1 = cp (T2 - T1) – R (T2 – T1)
and since u2 - u1 = cv (T2 - T1) for any process
cv (T2 - T1) = cp (T2 - T1) – R (T2 – T1)
and cp – cv = R
• Summary
∆U W Q
Process Energy supplied Energy supplied Total energy

to raise to do work supplied
temperature at
constant volume
Constant Vol mcvdT 0 mcvdT
Constant mcvdT pdv mcvdT + pdv

Pressure = mcpdT
∆ U Same for any Q depends on the

process only process
depends on T
Note : To complete these integrations it has been assumed

that cv and cp are constants. In practice they vary with
temperature but a suitable mean value is usually assumed.
Ratio of specific heat capacities
cp / cv =  (gamma)
 > 1 since cp > cv
  1.6 for monatomic gases (eg He, Ar)
  1.4 for diatomic gases (eg H2 , N2 , O2 and air )
  1.3 for triatomic gases

ME10003 (eg CO2 , SO2)
- Thermodynamics 90
• For an Isentropic Process


pv  constant
cp
• Where 
cv
• And the work done can be shown to be
p2 v2  p1v1
W
 1
• Isentropic relationships
– For an isentropic process we have already stated
that 
pv  constant
– By combining this expression with the equation
of state pV = mRT it is also possible to show the
following
 1 1
p2  T2   1 v2  T1   1  2  T2   1
  ;   ;  
p1  T1  v1  T2  1  T1 
Example 12 – The Isentropic
Relations
• Polytropic Process
– A polytropic process is one in which heat transfer

takes place
pv  constant
n
– The value of n depends on the rate of reversible

heat transfer
– No heat transfer when n=

Example 13 – Work done in a
reversible polytropic process
9. Steady Flow Systems
We have considered the non-flow energy equation
In closed systems the working fluid remains in a

container
e.g. piston and cylinder
In open systems the working fluid is passing

through the system
e.g. pipe, pump
Steady Flow Systems
Steady Flow Systems
A modern jet engine used to power Boeing 777

aircraft.
This is a Pratt & Whitney PW4084 turbofan capable

of producing
84,000 pounds of thrust.
It is 4.87 m long, has a 2.84 m diameter fan,
and it weighs 6800 kg
Steady Flow Systems
Example : Pipe Flow
Flow Flow
control volume
Steady Flow Systems
• Example : Water mill

control volume
Work
• Energy : PE of water transformed to work

Steady Flow Systems
• Example : Pump
V
Work
control volume
V= 0
• Energy: Pump work to PE + KE of fluid

Steady Flow Systems
– Steady Flow process
• Mass flow rate in is equal to the mass flow rate

out
• Transfers of energy (work or heat) occur at a
constant rate
• Fluid properties do not vary with time

Steady Flow Systems
Familiar with PE and KE from mechanics
For open systems with flowrate m

1
KE  mC
 2
and PE  m gZ
2
C = velocity and Z = height in thermodynamics to avoid confusion
with other quantities
These are rates of energy flow – Power (W)

Steady Flow Systems
Characteristics of Open and closed systems
Closed System Open System
System boundaries usually System boundaries physical

physical and imaginary
Fixed mass of working fluid Fixed mass flowrate of working

trapped in system fluid flows in and out of system
Energy transfers via heat (Q) Energy rate (Power) transfers

and Work (W) via heat and work occur at a
constant rate
Changes in KE and PE Changes in KE and PE may not

considered negligible be negligible
Steady Flow Systems
• Other terms to be considered

• Work, now interested in the rate of doing
work (power)
• This can be shown to be
m p
W


Steady Flow Systems
Consider an element of fluid entering a system in a

time interval dt
System System
dm pressure p pressure p
dm
dl
time t = 0 time t = dt

Steady Flow Systems
Flow work
• Work done on the system to push fluid into the system (or
work done by system to eject fluid)
• Small mass of fluid dm moves distance dl in time interval dt

• Force to move small mass = pA
• Work done = pAdl

Steady Flow Systems
• Flow work
 dl   1 dm  p
Rate of doing work = pA   pA   m
 dt   A dt  
since dm  Adl
p
m

is called “Flow work” – the energy due to
compressing or expanding the gas to get it into or out of the system

Steady Flow Systems
Consider the general case of a fluid entering and
leaving a system:
Q Velocity = C2
W
Velocity
= C1
height = Z2
height = Z1

Steady Flow Systems
Flow of energy into the system
• We have Q and W and 4 other energy components to consider:
• Internal energy  m u1
(due to temperature)
• Flow energy m p1
(due to compressing/expanding fluid) 
1
• Kinetic Energy m C 12
(due to bulk velocity) 
2
• Potential Energy =
(due to change in height  m gZ1
in a gravitational field)
Steady Flow Systems
Flow of energy out of system
• Internal energy
 m u2
(due to temperature)
m p2
• Flow energy 
(due to compressing/expanding fluid) 2
• Kinetic Energy
m C22
(due to bulk velocity) 
2
• Potential Energy =
(due to change in height  m gZ 2
in a gravitational field)
Steady Flow Systems
Applying 1st Law (energy conservation)
• No accumulation of mass or energy within the
system, the Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE)
can now be written as
  p C 2
  p C 2

Q  W  m    u2 
  2 2
 gZ 2     u1 
1 1
 gZ1  
  2 2   1 2 
• There are no restrictions to the use of this equation
– Applicable to compressible and irreversible flows
– Energy may change form within the system but

energy in = energy out
Steady Flow Systems
Aside - Bernoulli Eqn
• Consider a steady flow system which is isothermal (u constant),
incompressible (ρ constant) and has no heat or work transfer
(Q  0 and W  0)
• The SFEE becomes
C 2
C 2
p1   gZ1  p2 
1
 gZ 2 2
2 2
• This is the Bernoulli equation used in fluid mechanics, and it
assumes a loss free flow

Steady Flow Systems
• It is worth considering the relative

magnitudes of the terms in SFEE
2
p C
u gZ
 2
• The PE term can usually be neglected
• The KE term is important in high speed
flows but can often be neglected in low
speed flows,
Example 14 – Order of
Magnitude Calculations for
Energy Terms in the SFEE

Steady Flow Systems
Enthalpy
• The flow work and the internal energy terms
always appear, and it is convenient to combine
them to give a new property “enthalpy”, defined as
p
specific enthalpy h  u   u  pv

• The
steady flow energy equation now
becomes
  C 2
  C 2
 
Q  W  m   h2  2
   h1  1
 

 2   2 
Steady Flow Systems
Enthalpy and Temperature
For NFEE, u2  u1  cv (T2  T1 )
Enthalpy defined as h  u  pv
So h2  h1  (u2  p2 v2 )  (u1  p1v1 )
 (u2  u1 )  ( p2 v2  p1v1 )
 cv (T2  T1 )  R (T2  T1 )
 (cv  R )(T2  T1 )
but c p  cv  R
So h2  h1  c p (T2  T1 )
This is applicable to ALL processes, not just constant
pressure
Steady Flow Systems
Stagnation conditions
– In fluid mechanics we have the concept of
stagnation or total pressure, the sum of the
dynamic and static pressures
– In a similar way we can define a stagnation
enthalpy as
2
C
h0  h 
2
“Stagnation enthalpy” “Static enthalpy”

Steady Flow Systems
Stagnation conditions
• In a steady flow situation, imagine that the
flow velocity is reduced to zero – where
does the energy go?
• A rise in temperature is observed – enthalpy
increases at the expense of KE
• Can calculate “Stagnation Temperature” by
equating lost KE to increase in enthalpy:

Steady Flow Systems
1
m C 2  m c p (T0  T )
2
T0  Stagnation Temperatur e (T0  T )
C2
rearrangin g : T0  T 
2c p
“Stagnation “Static
temperature” temperature”

Steady Flow Systems
• The steady flow energy equation can

now be written as
Q  W  m h02  h01  
• It is applicable to all types of flow
• Reversible
• Irreversible

Steady Flow Systems
Stagnation Pressure
• Can also consider the stagnation pressure
p0 – a pressure which could be attained if
the flow velocity was reduced to zero
• To calculate p0 we need to specify
isentropic flow (ie adiabatic and reversible)
• Then p0 can be found via the isentropic
relation: 
p0  T0   1
“Stagnation   ( p0  p )
pressure” p T 
“Static pressure”
10 . Applications of the SFEE
Stationary ducts
– eg nozzles and diffusers
No work transfer
No heat transfer (adiabatic)
Assume reversible flow ( Isentropic)
For flow processes in which there is no work

transfer or heat transfer there is no change in
stagnation enthalpy

Example 15 – Property
Variations With Velocity in the
SFEE

Applications of the SFEE
• Application of the SFEE - Nozzle

• Designed to accelerate the flow and provide a high velocity jet
C2>C1
C1 p1>p2
C2
• There is no work or heat transfer so applying SFEE between 1
and 2 gives
2
C2
C 2
h2  h1   1
2 2
• The gain in kinetic energy is equal to the reduction in enthalpy

• Application of the SFEE

C2<C1
– Diffuser
p1< p2
C1 C2
• A diffuser is the reverse of a nozzle

• Used to reduce velocity while increasing the
pressure
• Analysis for nozzle can be applied to a diffuser

Example 16 – SFEE
Calculations – Nozzles and
Diffusers


– Turbine
– Used to extract power from a steady flow of gas
W T  m  h02  h01 
2
WT


– Compressor
– Work done on the gas to increase the
pressure
W C  m  h02  h01 
2
1
WC

Example 17 – SFEE
Calculations – Turbines and
Compressors

• Combustion Chambers, Boilers

– Devices to add heat to the working fluid no work
input
Q  m  h02  h01 

– Condensers extract heat from the working fluid

Example 18 – SFEE
Calculations – Steam Turbine

11. The Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law tells us that the quantity of energy is

always conserved
• But the first law is not the whole story…..
We can imagine many processes in which energy is

conserved that will never happen:

The Second Law of Thermodynamics
A) Hot drink in a room cools down
time
20°C 70°C 21°C 21°C Yes
B) Drink heats up whilst room cools down
time
21°C 21°C 20°C 70°C No
A) An house collapses into a pile of warm
bricks (PE of bricks → heat) Yes
B) A warm pile of bricks spontaneously

transform themselves into a house No

A) Water is heated by turning a paddle wheel
with a falling weight
Yes
A) Warm water spontaneously cools down,

turns paddle and raises weight
No

• None of the A or B processes in the previous

examples violate the 1st Law
• The A processes proceed spontaneously
• The B processes do not proceed spontaneously
• A “time direction” has appeared – some processes

are irreversible

2nd Law was the result of the work of many people,
notably:
• Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) – French Physicist and

military engineer
• William Thompson (aka Lord Kelvin) (1824 -1907) –
Irish mathematical physicist / engineer
• Rudolph Clausius (1822-1888) - German physicist
/mathematician
• Ludwig Boltzmann (1844 – 1906) – Austrian physicist

“Heat flows from a hot body to a cold one unaided,

it cannot flow from a cold to a hot one without
external assistance”

• 2nd Law asserts that energy has quality

as well as quantity
Quantity  Joules (J) - 1st Law

Quality  Temperature (K) - 2nd Law
– Natural events proceed in a direction that

degrades the quality of energy

• Energy Conservation
• 1st law says the quantity of energy is always
conserved
• BUT the quality of energy is not conserved – energy
is constantly being transformed from more useful
forms (high temperature = high quality) to less
useful forms (low temperature = low quality)

– Closely associated with the thermodynamic

property called ENTROPY
– Like the first law, the second law cannot be

deduced theoretically
– Its validity rests with the fact that it has never

been disproved

• The Second Law of Thermodynamics
– No Process is reversible if it involves
• Friction
• Transfer of heat across a temperature difference
– All real processes are irreversible
– Reversible process should be considered as the

limiting case

12. Entropy
• From a total supply of heat to a unit mass of

working fluid, an infinitesimally small amount of
heat dq is transferred to work at a temperature T.
• This may be recorded as a small change in the

property entropy (s) in the form
dq
ds  s  specific entropy
T
• It can be shown that the change in entropy
is equal to 2
 dq 
s    
T 
1

Example 19 – Graphical
Representation of Entropy

Entropy
• Note that the quantity of energy dq, and an

indication of the quality (T) are included
• Entropy cannot be measured directly, which is a

major disadvantage when trying to understand this
concept

Entropy
• Example
• For a given amount of heat usage dq, is

the specific entropy change ds larger at
a high temperature (say 500°C) or a low
temperature (say 100°C)?

Entropy
dq
• At high temp ds   0.0013 dq
500  273
dq
• At low temp ds   0.0027 dq
100  273
• ds low temp > ds high temp
• Can represent this on Temperature -

Entropy (T-S) graph

Entropy
High temperature
process
Temperature T
Low temperature
process
Entropy S
Area under graph on T-S diagram = ∫ Tds = ∫dq = heat

In this case areas are equal as the heat transferred was the
same in both cases

Entropy
• Conclusion
– If a small amount of heat dq flows to
another body at a lower temperature the
the entropy increase at the low
temperature reservoir is greater than the
entropy decrease at the high temperature
reservoir
– There is an ENTROPY INEQUALITY

Entropy
• The entropy of an isolated system and surroundings

always increases, or in the limiting case of a
reversible process, remains constant
• ΔS (system+ surroundings) > 0 irreversible process
• ΔS (system+ surroundings) = 0 reversible process

(= isentropic process)
• ΔS (system+ surroundings) < 0 impossible process

Entropy
• The most general expression of the

second law is
ΔS (system+ surroundings) ≥ 0
The property entropy (s) arises as a consequence of
the 2nd Law in much the same way as internal
energy (u) arises from the 1st Law
It is a measure of irreversibility, and as such can be

used to determine if a process can occur or not
Example 20 – Entropy and
Reversibility

Entropy
• Entropy
• The change in entropy can be used as a
criterion of reversibility
• Consider a reversible adiabatic process
dQ  Tds
• Since dQ = 0 for such a process, then ds=0
• i.e. entropy remains constant when an
adiabatic process is reversible
Entropy
• Rudolph Clausius (German physicist

1822-88)
“The energy of the universe is constant,

and its entropy tends to a maximum”
– Embodies 1st and 2nd Laws

Entropy
“Heat Death of the Universe”

T T
time
x
x
For the predicted Heat Death to occur, the universe

must be a closed system……….

Entropy
• Changes in entropy during processes

with a perfect gas
• Consider 5 cases
1. General case (polytropic process)
2. Constant volume process (isochoric)
3. Constant pressure process (isobaric)
4. Constant temperature (isothermal)
5. Reversible adiabatic process (isentropic)
Entropy
1. General case (polytropic)
– From the first law
du  dq  dw
where dw   pdv for a reversible process
also dq  Tds for a reversible process
du pdv
thus ds  
T T
For a perfect gas
pv  RT and du  cv dT
cv dT Rdv
hence ds  
T v
Entropy
• By integrating the expression we get the result
T2 v2
s2  s1  cv ln  R ln equation 1
T1 v1
• When the properties v and T are known at any two
states the difference between the specific entropy
at these two states can be found from this
equation, regardless of the process which relates
the two states.

Entropy
p1v1 p2 v2
• By recognising that 
T1 T2
• It is possible to write the previous equation in
other forms most usefully in terms of
pressure and temperature
T2 p1
s2  s1  c p ln  R ln equation 2
T1 p2

Entropy
2. Constant Volume Process

• (use equation 1 with v1 = v2 )
T2
s2  s1  cv ln
T1

Entropy
3. Constant pressure process

(use equation 2 with p1 = p2 )
T2
s2  s1  c p ln
T1

Entropy
4. Constant temperature
v2
s2  s1  R ln ( from eqn 1 with T1  T2 )
v1
p1
or s2  s1  R ln ( from eqn 2 with T1  T2 )
p2

Entropy
• Reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
ds=0
• Entropy change for any system and it’s
surroundings considered together is
• Positive
• It approaches zero as process approaches reversibility
• All natural processes result in an increase in

total entropy
Example 21 – Entropy
Changes for a Perfect Gas

Entropy
Isentropic Compression
P2 P2 > P 1
T
T2 ideal
P1
T1
If process were perfectly isentropic:

Entropy
Isentropic Compression
P2 P2 > P 1
T T2 actual
T2 ideal
P1
T1
S
In reality, process will not be
isentropic, and we define an
isentropic efficiency which tells
us how close we get to the ideal
isentropic case
13. Heat Engines
• 2nd Law – Heat and Work

Work → Heat can be achieved easily and
completely (eg car brakes)
Heat → Work more difficult – need a heat engine
What is a heat engine?

A device which:
-Receives heat from a high temperature source
-Converts some of the heat to work
-Rejects remaining heat to “heat sink”
-Operates in a cycle
Heat Engines
• A simple heat engine example

Heat Engines
• Some of the heat supplied by the source goes to

raise the weight and some to heat the gas
• In order to work in a cycle, the gas must be cooled
back to its original temperature to return to the start.
• The excess heat cannot be returned to the heat
source as it is at a lower temperature – HEAT MUST
BE REJECTED
• Need at least two heat reservoirs for a heat engine

Heat Engines
Forward Heat Engine Reversed Heat Engine
(eg combustion engine) (eg refrigerator)
High temperature High temperature

Energy reservoir Energy reservoir
Q1
Q1
W Q1 -ve W
Q1 +ve
W –ve W +ve
Q2 -ve Q2 +ve
Q2 Q2
Low temperature Low temperature


Heat Engines
• We can apply the first law to both cases
• Q1  Q2  W  0
• Where Q1 is the heat source and Q2 the heat
sink

Heat Engines
• Forward heat engine

High temperature
Energy reservoir
Q1 is positive Q1=100 units

W=15 units
W and Q2 are negative Q2= 85 units
Low temperature
There is always heat Energy reservoir
rejected
Heat Engines
• The previous example leads to the Kelvin-

Planck statement of the second law which
says
– It is impossible to construct a heat engine which

will operate on a complete cycle, extract heat
from a reservoir, and undertake an equivalent
amount of work on the surroundings
• The 2nd Law implies that some heat will

always be rejected
Heat Engines
High temperature
KELVIN PLANCK
Energy reservoir STATEMENT
SAYS THAT THIS
Q1= x units
IS
W= x units
IMPOSSIBLE
Low temperature
Energy reservoir

Heat Engines
• The efficiency of a cycle can never be unity
• The greater the fraction of heat supplied that

is converted into net work the better the
engine
• Efficiency is defined as
net work - W Q1  Q2
  
heat supplied Q1 Q1
Heat Engines
• Clausius Statement of 2nd Law

(Corollary 1)
“It is impossible to construct a system that will

operate in a cycle and transfer heat from a cooler to
a hotter body without work being done on the
system by the surroundings”

Heat Engines
CLAUSIUS
High temperature
STATEMENT SAYS Energy reservoir
THAT THIS IS Q1= y units
IMPOSSIBLE Q2= y units
Low temperature
Energy reservoir

Heat Engines
Kelvin Planck Statement Clausius Statement
This is impossible: This is impossible:

x units
y units
x units
y units
Low temperature
Low temperature
Energy reservoir
Energy reservoir
What connects these statements?

Heat Engines
• It can be demonstrated that any device that
violates one statement also violates the other
• Consider a heat engine, which in violation of the

Kelvin-Planck Statement converts all the
received heat QH into work W = QH
• This could be used to power a reverse heat
engine which removes heat QL from a low
temperature reservoir and rejects an equivalent
amount of heat QL + QH to a high temperature
reservoir

Heat Engines
QH QH + QL QL
W =QH
QL QL
Low temperature
Low temperature
Energy reservoir
Energy reservoir
The combination of ….is equivalent to

these two devices……. this

Heat Engines
Corollary 2
“It is impossible to construct an engine

operating between only two heat
reservoirs which will have a higher
efficiency than a reversible engine
operating between the same reservoirs”
– The proof is by contradiction

Example 22 – Proof that no
heat engine can have a higher
efficiency than a Reversible
Engine

Heat Engines
• Corollary 3
“All reversible engines (whatever the

cycle or working fluid) operating
between the same two reservoirs must
have the same efficiency”
• The efficiency must depend on the only

feature which is common – ie the
temperatures

Heat Engines
• Maximum possible efficiency is called
the CARNOT EFFICIENCY
Tcold
CARNOT  1
Thot

Heat Engines
Tcold
• Ideal (Carnot ) efficiency th  1 
Thot
• Efficiency can be maximised by
– Raising Thot
– Lowering Tcold
• Need to reject heat at Tcold = 0 (Absolute zero) to
achieve ηth = 1
• On planet earth we are generally stuck with
Tcold = 250-300K, which places a severe constraint
on achievable efficiency

Heat Engines
Refrigeration
Reversed Heat Engine
Heat appears to flows (eg refrigerator)
from a low to a high
temperature reservoir
High temperature
Energy reservoir
HOW CAN THIS BE? Q1

Q1 -ve W
W +ve
Q2 +ve
Q2
Low temperature
Energy reservoir

Heat Engines
Refrigeration
• Special working fluid (liquid-vapour mixture)
called a “refrigerant” is used
• Refrigerant temperature is manipulated via
compression and expansion processes in
different parts of the circuit
• Full analysis requires knowledge of vapour
cycles – (Thermal Power – Year 2)

Heat Engines - Refrigeration
• At no point does
heat flow from a
lower to a higher
temperature –
• 2nd Law not
violated

Example 23 – Efficiency of
Real Heat Engines

Heat Engines
• Work Output from engine = (energy supplied) x ηth
 Tcold 
 Q  1  
 Thot 
• Note that temperature controls the quality of the heat energy,

and thus its availability for conversion into work
• The relationship between heat and temperature in this context

is defined by the thermodynamic property ENTROPY (s)

Heat Engines
• The Carnot cycle
• Sadi Carnot was amongst the first to
introduce the concept of a cyclic
thermodynamic system.
• The Carnot cycle is a completely
reversible cycle which consists of 4
separate reversible processes.

Heat Engines
The Carnot cycle

Heat Engines
The Carnot cycle
• Process 1-2 : Reversible, isothermal heat addition at
high temperature, TH > TL, to a working fluid in a piston-
cylinder device,
• Process 2-3: Reversible adiabatic expansion during
which the system does work as the working fluid
temperature decreases from TH to TL
• Process 3-4 : The system is brought into contact with a
heat reservoir at TL and a reversible isothermal heat
exchange takes place while work of compression is done
on the system
• Process 4-1: A reversible adiabatic compression process
increases the working fluid temperature from TL to TH

Heat Engines
• The above cycle is completely reversible, and if
operated in the reverse direction it becomes the
Carnot refrigeration cycle.
• This time the directions of all heat and work
interactions are reversed such that the amount
of heat QL is absorbed from the low temperature
reservoir and QH is rejected to the high
temperature reservoir
• Work input of Wnet in is required to accomplish
this.

Heat Engines
The Carnot cycle
• Could also show this on a T-S diagram

T
1 2
TH
TL
TL
4
th Carnot Cycle  1 
3 TH
A B
S
Example 24 – Derivation of
Carnot Cycle Efficiency

Heat Engines
• The Carnot Cycle
• We have already shown that the efficiency of any

reversible heat engine operating between the same
two heat reservoirs must be identical
• All reversible heat engines have η = ηcarnot

Heat Engines
A steady flow Carnot Engine

14. Standard Air Cycles
Simple representations of the thermodynamic cycle used by
different types of heat engine:
•Otto Cycle – basis of spark ignition (petrol) engine
•Diesel Cycle – basis of compression ignition (diesel)

engine
•Dual Combustion Cycle – a more realistic

representation of a compression ignition engine
•Brayton Cycle – basis of gas turbine engine

Standard Air Cycles
• Cycles in which the fuel is burned directly in the working
fluid are not heat engines in the true meaning of the term
since the system is not reduced to its initial state.
• The working fluid undergoes a chemical change by

combustion and the resulting products are exhausted to the
atmosphere.
• In practice such cycles are used frequently and are called

internal-combustion cycles. Examples include gas turbines,
petrol engines, diesel engines and gas engines.
Standard Air Cycles
To give a basis for comparing real engine cycles the air
standard cycle is initially adopted.
An air standard cycle is based upon the following assumptions:
a)The working fluid is air, considered to be an ideal

gas
b)All the processes that make-up the operating cycle
are reversible
c)The internal combustion process is represented as
external heat addition
d)The exhaust process is represented as a heat
rejection
Standard Air Cycles
Nomenclature for
reciprocating engines
Which are the intake valves?

Standard Air Cycles
Nomenclature for
reciprocating engines
Compressio n ratio 
Disp. Volume  Cl. Volume
Cl. Volume
SI Engine Operation
Single / Multi-point injection…. & GDI

4 Stroke Cycle
SI Engine Operation (2
Stroke)
Standard Air Cycles
Standard Air Cycles
Real Engine (4 stroke) Ideal air cycle
Air is inducted and exhaust gas expelled – open Fixed mass of trapped air with no leakage –
system closed system
Working fluid changes composition due to Air behaves as perfect gas with constant heat
chemical reactions (fuel and air changes to capacity
exhaust gas) - properties not constant
Heat capacities of gases vary with temperature

Processes are irreversible – compression and Processes are reversible
expansion are polytropic, combustion is
irreversible
Heat addition by internal combustion of air and Heat addition and removal by contact with
fuel, heat removal by exhaust blowdown external heat reservoirs
Heat addition (combustion) occurs with varying Heat addition occurs at constant volume (Otto) or
pressure and volume pressure (Diesel)
Friction due to piston in bore, bearings etc lead to No friction, reversible cycle
irreversibilities
Standard Air Cycles
The Otto cycle is named after Nikolaus Otto who developed an engine
working on this cycle in 1876. It forms the basis for analysing spark
ignition petrol engines.
Assumes combustion is a rapid event – piston motion is negligible , so
it takes place at constant volume
Process 1 - 2 is isentropic
compression
Process 2 - 3 is reversible constant

Qin volume heating
Process 3 - 4 is isentropic expansion
Qout Process 4 - 1 is reversible constant

volume cooling
Standard Air Cycles
• To give a direct comparison with an actual engine,
the ratio of the specific volumes is taken to be the
same as the compression ratio of the actual engine
i.e., Compression ratio,
Displacement vol  clearance vol

clearance vol
• The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle can be
shown to be:
1
 Otto  1 -  1
rv
• where rv is the compression ratio
Standard Air Cycles
• The thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle is given by:
heat sup plied  heat rejected Q1  Q2
 otto  
heat sup plied Q1
• For the Otto cycle the heat supplied and heat rejected occur
at constant volume. For unit mass of air:
Q1  cv (T3  T2 )
Q2  cv (T4  T1 )
• Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic ie Q=0
cv (T3  T2 )  cv (T4  T1 ) T4  T1
 otto   1
cv (T3  T2 ) T3  T2
Standard Air Cycles
• T-S diagram for the Otto Cycle

T 3
Heat addition at Isentropic

Heat addition at Isentropic constant volume expansion
constant volume expansion
2
Isentropic 4
compression
Heat removal at
Heat removal at constant volume
Isentropic constant volume 1
compression
S
T-S diagram helps to visualise the heat transfer during a
process. The area under a T-S curve of a process is the
heat transferred to the system during that process.
Example 26 – The Otto cycle

Standard Air Cycles
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP)
The mean effective pressure is

an imaginary constant pressure
which, if acted on the piston
during the entire cycle, would
produce the same work as the
real, varying pressure
net work
MEP 
vmax  vmin
Standard Air Cycles
• Higher MEP means more work per unit swept

volume
• MEP is a useful parameter for comparing
engine performance because it is
independent of engine speed and swept
volume
• MEP is applicable to any type of engine with
varying pressure
BMEP comparison for 4 stroke engines
Swept Max Max BMEP at BMEP at

Fuel Aspiration Bore Stroke N Cyl Vol Power Torque max Power Max Torque
mm mm cm^3 kW Nm bar bar
Briggs & Stratton Lawnmower Petrol NA 79.2 61.3 1 302 7.46 18.7 7.41 7.78
Ford Mondeo 2 litre Petrol NA 87.5 83.1 4 1999 107 190 10.71 11.95
BMW M54 B30 Petrol NA 84.0 89.6 6 2979 170 300 11.61 12.65
Cosworth DFV F1 engine Petrol NA 85.7 64.9 8 2993 304 370 13.54 15.54
Ferrari F40 Petrol TC 86.5 83.0 8 3902 493 760 18.95 24.48
Rolls Royce Merlin (61) Petrol SC 137.0 152.0 12 26887 962 14.31
Ford Mondeo 2.0 TDCi 140 Diesel TC 85.0 88.0 4 1997 103 320 15.47 20.13
Land Rover Discovery Diesel TC 81.0 88.0 6 2721 147 440 16.21 20.32
Volvo D12 Truck Diesel TC 131.1 149.9 6 12140 309 2100 16.97 21.74
NA = Naturally Aspirated TC = Turbocharged SC = Supercharged

Diesel Engine Operation
Diesel Fuel Injection
Standard Air Cycles
The Diesel Cycle

The engines in use today which are called diesel
engines are far removed from the original engine
invented by Diesel in 1892.
Originally Diesel worked on the idea of spontaneous
ignition of powdered coal, which was blasted into
the cylinder by compressed air.
The oil burning Diesel cycle achieves combustion by
using a high compression ratio which creates a
sufficiently high temperature to self-ignite the
fuel/air mixture.
Standard Air Cycles
The Diesel Cycle Process 1 - 2 is isentropic compression

pressure heating
Process 3 - 4 is isentropic expansion
Process 4 –1 is reversible constant

volume cooling

As before, the compression ratio, rv is
given by the ratio v1/v2
Hence 3 of the 4 processes are identical to the Otto cycle

Standard Air Cycles
The Diesel Cycle
The heat addition occurs between points 2 & 3, and is

assumed to take place at constant pressure because
Diesel reasoned that the combustion in a real
engine would be relatively slow and take place over
a significant movement of the pistons.
The diesel cycle provides a basis for studying large,

low speed diesel engines
Standard Air Cycles
The Diesel Cycle
heat sup plied  heat rejected

 diesel 
heat sup plied
c p (T3  T2 )  cv (T4  T1 ) T4  T1
 diesel   1
c p (T3  T2 )  (T3  T2 )
Heat addition could continue indefinitely from 2 until the original

volume was reached.
 need to define the point at which it ceases, using a cut-off
ratio α, defined as:
α = v3 / v2
Standard Air Cycles
The Diesel Cycle
• So efficiency depends on compression ratio and the cut-

off ratio (which limits the heat supplied)
• ηdiesel < ηotto FOR THE SAME COMPRESSION RATIO
• In practice diesel engines have higher compression ratios

than petrol engines (approx 20:1 rather than 10:1) which
accounts for their superior efficiency, but heavier
construction is necessary
Standard Air Cycles
• T-S diagram for the Diesel Cycle
Heat addition at
constant pressure
T
Heat addition at 3
Isentropic constant pressure
expansion Isentropic
2 expansion
Isentropic 4
Heat removal at compression
constant volume Heat removal at
constant volume
Isentropic 1
compression
S
Example 27 – The Diesel cycle

Standard Air Cycles
Dual Combustion Cycle
Modern High Speed Diesel engines are

better represented by the dual
combustion cycle
Heat supplied in 2 stages:

2-3 is constant volume heat addition
3-4 is constant pressure heat addition
k= p3/p2
Other processes as before
Efficiency in between Otto and diesel

k   1
 dualcombustion  1
  k  1  k (  1) rv 1
Standard Air Cycles
• Gas Turbine
• The air standard cycle which represents a
simple gas turbine is the Brayton cycle
• Gas Turbines used in aircraft, power

stations, trains, ships, even F1 cars (Lotus 56
in 1968 ) until they were banned….
Gas Turbine
Standard Air Cycles
• Gas turbine – Brayton cycle

Process 1 - 2 is isentropic compression (in
P 2 3
compressor)

pressure heat addition
Process 3 - 4 is isentropic expansion (in

turbine)
1 4
Process 4 –1 is reversible constant
v pressure heat rejection

How a jet engine works
5min
How a jet engine works
10min
Standard Air Cycles
• Brayton Cycle
3
T
P 2 3
Heat addition at
constant pressure Isentropic
expansion
2
Isentropic 4
compression
Heat removal at
constant pressure
1
1 4
v S
Example 28 – The Brayton cycle

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Thermodynamics

Dr Kevin Robinson (4E 2.25)

1. Introduction, Basic Concepts and Definitions

8. Specific Heat Capacities of Gases

1. Thermodynamics – An Engineering Approach

• Thermodynamics is the science

Key questions for engineers:

•How efficient are these devices?

•This is the domain of “Thermodynamics”

– A region within prescribed boundaries

• Closed system (Non-flow processes)

• Open system (Flow processes)

Inlet of the Discharge of the

The state of the working fluid can be

–“Specific” means per unit mass (lower case

Thermodynamic properties may be classified as either

Extensive properties are ones that depend on the

• Centigrade scale based on arbitrary but

• Preference for use can be related to closed and   1systems

• Other specific terms which will be used later in unit

• In Mechanical Engineering we are really

• For the sake of completeness, there are

• Zeroth Law (date: 1931)

ie A, B and C are at the same “Temperature”

Second Law: “You can only break even at absolute zero”

Third Law “You cannot reach absolute zero”

(Source: Scientific American, March 1964 p 40A)

Kinetic theory of gases (“ideal” or “perfect” gases):

• Ideal Gas Laws:

– It follows that p  T for fixed mass and Volume

• Equation of State for a Perfect Gas

• If any of the properties of the working fluid are

• It has been shown that the state of the working fluid

• The Equation of State can be written in a number of

Ie Temperature is proportional to the square of molecular velocity

Pay attention to the units!

• Top 3 mistakes when using the

Defined as the number of molecules in a mole of any

-The number of popcorn kernels needed to cover the USA

-The number of cupfuls of water in the Pacific Ocean

-The number of soft drink cans that would cover the

(*Source: Bryson – A Short History of Nearly Everything, 2003, p139)

– Assumptions break down at high pressures –

• eg nitrogen at room temp – Ideal gas Equation of

• Nitrogen at 200°C and 10 MPa deviation up to 4%

Vapour – a gas that can be condensed to a liquid by

With vapours it is necessary to use ‘Tables of Properties’

• Any change that a system undergoes from one

• A thermodynamic cycle is complete when the system

• The change in pressure, Volume and Temperature of

• The state of the system is defined by any two

• p – V diagram for a compression

• Work W, the transfer of energy across the system

• Heat Q, the transfer of energy across the system

2. Compression work input

3. Heat input at constant volume 1

We have considered the special cases of constant volume