Fundamentals of

Acoustics
Some General Wave
Phenomena
 Standing Waves
• Taking the example of two
sinusoidal waves with equal
amplitudes moving in opposite
directions:
j (t  kx )
pi  piAe
j (t  kx )
pr  prAe
jt j (t  kx )
p  pi  pr  2 prA cos kxe  ( piA  prA )e
This expression has two parts: first part
is a standing wave field. 2 piA cos kxe jt
• It describes a waveform that does not
propagate along the x direction, instead , the
waveform remains stationary.
• Such a wave is called a standing wave and is
mathematically characterized by an amplitude
that depends on the position along the x
direction.

kx  n , x  n (n  1, 2,)
2
The positions of maximum pressure are
called antinodes of standing wave
  
when kx  (2n  1) , x  (2n  1) (n  1,2, )
2 4

• Where the pressure is zero at all time ,

called nodes of standing wave.
The interference of sound waves
If sound waves of the same frequency
and amplitude are superposed, they
either neutralize or reinforce each
other’s effects. The phenomenon is
described as interference
Two signals that have a definite fixed relative
phase relation are called coherent.
This could be the case for two signals
both deriving from the same source, such
as two speakers both being driven by the
same signal generator or light from a
single laser beam being split and
recombined

p1  p1 A cos(t  1 );
p2  p2 A cos(t  2 ).    2  1
 p  p1  p2  p1 A cos(t  1 )  p2 A cos(t  2 )
 p A cos(t   )

p p p
2
A
2
1A
2
2A 2 p1 A p1 A cos( 2   1 ),

p1 A sin  1  p 2 A sin  2 
  tan 1 . 
p1 A cos  1  p 2 A cos  2 
   2  1 When   0,2 ,4 , ,
p A  p1 A  p2 A Maximum cooperation
When    ,3 , ,
p A  p1 A  p2 A Maximum cancellation
3-9 Spherical Acoustic
Waves
• A disturbance is produced by a point
source and propagated away from the
sphere uniformly in all direction as
spherical waves, we have spherical
acoustic waves
• Expressed in spherical coordinates the
wave equation is
2 p 1  p 1  p 1  2
p
 c0 [ 2 ( r
2 2
) 2 (sin  ) 2 2 ]
t 2
r r r r sin    r sin   2
 z

 r
o
 y

If the waves have x

spherical symmetry, the
acoustic pressure p is a
function of radial
distance and time but
not of the angular
coordinates  ,
Spherical acoustic waves do not change
shape as they spread out. Although the
wavefront of spherical acoustic waves can
be assumed plane at great distances from
the source, many acoustical problems are
concerned with diverging spherical
acoustic waves radiated from a simple
source rather than plane acoustic waves.
In the case of spherical symmetry,
the wave equation simplifies to
2 p 2 1  2 p
 c0 [ 2 ( r )]
t 2
r r r

 p
2
2  p
2
2 p
 c0 ( 2  )
t 2
r r r
X  pr
Rewriting the wave equation
2 X  2
X
 c0
2

t 2
r 2
 The equation is of the same form as
the plane wave equation with the
general solution
X  f1 (t  r / c0 )  f 2 (t  r / c0 )
rp  f1 (t  r )  f 2 (t  r )
c0 c0
1 r 1 r
p(r , t )  f 1 (t  )  f 2 (t  )
r c0 r c0
• The first term represents a spherical wave
diverging from a point source at the origin
with speed c0; the second term represents a
wave converging on the origin.
The converging wave has little application in
acoustics while the diverging wave is
frequently produced by a small source and
has many uses. 1
p f1 (t  r / c0 )
r
The most important diverging spherical
waves are harmonic. Such waves are
represented in complex form by
A j (t  kr )
p e
r
• The wave diminish in amplitude as the
distance from the source increase.
 The acoustic impedance of
spherical waves
• Form the equation of motion
u 1 p 1 p
 u    dt
t 0 r 0 r

A j (t  kr ) 1  jkr
u (1  jkr )e  p
j 0 r 2
j 0 r
It is apparent that , in contrast with plane
waves, the particle velocity is not in phase
with the pressure
 p
u
For acoustic impedance Za

j0 r  0c0 (kr ) 0r

2
Za    j
1  jkr 1  (kr ) 2
1  (kr ) 2

Za will be found to be complex

Z a  ra  jxa  ra  j ma
0c0 ( kr ) 2 0c0 (kr ) 0r
ra  xa  ma 
1  ( kr ) 2 1  (kr ) 2
1  (kr ) 2

Where ra is called the acoustic resistance and Xa the

acoustic reactance
 j
Za  Za e

 0 c0 kr xa 1
Za  , tan   
1  (kr ) 2 ra kr
kr
Z a  0c0 cos  , cos  
1   kr 
2

A geometrical representation of  1  k 2r 2
1
is given in Fig. 
kr
 1 90

ra 0.8
ra
 0 c0  0 c0 60
0.6

xa 0.4 xa
 0 c0 30
 0 c0
0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
kr

When the distance from the source is only a

small fraction of a wavelength, the phase
difference between the complex pressure
and particle speed is large

kr ＜＜
1, ra  0, xa  0,    / 2
 When kr=1, both the acoustic
resistance and reactance are
equal to 0c0 / 2, and   450
• And the acoustic reactance has its
maximum value.
• When kr＞＞
1, ra  0 c0 , xa  0,   0
At distances corresponding to a
considerable number of wavelengths, p
and u are very nearly in phase, and the
spherical wave then assumes the
characteristics of a plane wave.
This behavior is to be expected , since
the wave fronts of all spherical waves
become essentially plane at great
distances from their source.