PHYSICS

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
 TEMPERATURE (T)
Temperature = a macroscopic quantity

(see later: T is related to KE of particles)

many properties of matter vary with T:

(length, volume, pressure of confined gas)
 TEMPERATURE (T)
Human senses can be deceiving
On a cold day: iron railings feel colder than wooden fences, but
both have the same T

How can we define T ?

Look for macroscopic changes in a system when heat is added to
it
 THERMAL ENERGY
Thermal energy is often referred to as heat. The thermal energy of
matter depends on how fast the atoms or molecules are moving. The
faster they are moving, the more thermal energy they possess.
Therefore, the temperature of the matter would be higher. Thermal
energy is a form of kinetic energy.
 THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
If there is a difference in temperature between two objects, energy is
transferred from the hotter object to the cooler one. This will continue
until both objects are at the same temperature. When they are at the
same temperature, we say that they are in thermal equilibrium, and
there is no overall transfer of energy any more between the two
objects.

Energy can be transferred from a hot object to a cooler one by:

•conduction (if they are touching each other)
•convection
•radiation
 CONDUCTION
When a substance is heated, its particles gain internal energy
and move more vigorously. The particles bump into nearby
particles and make them vibrate more. This passes internal
energy through the substance by conduction, from the hot
end to the cold end.
EXAMPLES FROM REAL LIFE
 CONDUCTION
This is how the handle of a metal spoon soon gets hot
when the spoon is put into a hot drink.
•A substance that transfers energy easily from the hot
part to the cold part is called a conductor. Metals are
good conductors.
•A substance that does not transfer energy easily from
the hot part to the cold part is called an insulator. Air and
plastics are insulators.
 CONVECTION
The particles in liquids and gases can move from place to
place. Convection happens when particles with a lot of
thermal energy in a liquid or gas move, and take the place of
particles with less thermal energy. Thermal energy is
transferred from hot places to cold places by convection.

As the hot air above a radiator rises it

pushes cooler air away from it. The cooler
air eventually circulates back round to the
radiator where it gets heated and the cycle
continues.
 RADIATION
All objects transfer energy to their surroundings by infrared
radiation. The hotter an object is, the more infrared radiation
it gives off.
No particles are involved in radiation, unlike conduction. This
means that energy transfer by radiation can work when
objects are not touching, even in space:
•radiation is why we are warmed by the Sun, even though it is
millions of kilometres away in space
•infrared cameras give images even in the dark, because they
are detecting infrared light, not visible light
RADIATION
ZERO PRINCIPLE OF THERMODYNAMICS
Theoretically, thermal equilibrium is fundamental in what is known
as the Zero Law or the Zero Principle of Thermodynamics , which
explains that if two separate systems are at the same moment in
thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal
equilibrium one with another. This Law is fundamental to the entire
discipline of thermodynamics, which is the branch of physics that
deals with describing the states of equilibrium at a macroscopic
level.
TWO THERMOMETERS
 USING THERMOMETERS

put the bulb of (a) in contact with a body

wait until the value of L (i.e. T) settles out

the thermometer and the body have reached

thermal equilibrium (they have the same T)
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
If two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium, they
must have the same temperature (TA=TB), and vice versa
IN DAILY LIFES
 BALANCE HEAT QUANTITY
The equation that gives rise to the quantification of the amount of
heat that is exchanged in the transfers between the bodies has the
form:
Q = M * C * ΔT
Let Q be the amount of heat expressed in calories, M the mass of
the body under study, C the specific heat of the body, and ΔT the
temperature difference.

In an equilibrium situation, the mass and the specific heat

retain their original value, but the temperature difference
becomes 0 because the equilibrium situation where there are no
temperature changes was precisely defined.
 THERMAL ENERGY FORMULA
Is part of the internal energy of a thermodynamic system in
equilibrium that is proportional to its absolute temperature and is
increased or decreased by energy transfer, usually in the form of
heat or work, through thermodynamic processes. At the
microscopic level and within the framework of Kinetic Theory, it is
the total of the mean kinetic energy present as the result of the
random movements of atoms and molecules or thermal agitation,
which disappear in the act.
 THERMAL ENERGY FORMULA
Heat transferred = mass * specific heat capacity* (final
temperature - initial temperature)
The equation is written
Q = m*cp(Tf-Ti)
We have:
Q = heat transferred
m = mass
cp = specific heat capacity
Tf = final temperature
Ti = initial temperature
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
The specific heat capacity of water is 4,200 Joules per kilogram
per degree Celsius (J/kg°C). This means that it takes 4,200 J to
raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.
 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Lead will warm up and cool down fastest because it doesn’t take
much energy to change its temperature. Brick will take much longer
to heat up and cool down. This is why bricks are sometimes used in
storage heaters as they stay warm for a long time. Most heaters are
filled with oil (1,800 J/kg°C) or water (4,200 J/kg°C) as these emit a
lot of energy as they cool down and, therefore, stay warm for a long
time.
 QUIZ - 1
What energy is needed to raise the temperature of 200
grams of copper by 20 ºC if the specific heat of the
copper is 386 J/kgºC?
 QUIZ - 2
 How much does the temperature of 200 g of water rise,
if you communicate an energy of 2500 Joules? The
specific heat of the water is 4180 J/kgºC.
THANK YOU!