UNDERSTANDING

CULTURE, SOCIETY
AND POLITICS
CULTURAL
ANTHROPOLOGY
AND SOCIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1
LESSON 2:

SOCIOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVES
 OBJECTIVES

Define sociology;
Describe two uses of sociological perspective;
Distinguish sociology from other social science
Outline the contributions of the major pioneers of
sociology; and
Identify the three major theorical perspectives.
 “Sociology is
nothing more than
common sense.”
SOCIOLOGY
The science of society.
SOCIOLOGY

Is the study of society.

It studies human social behavior.
It came from the Latin word socios (companion with
others) and the Greek word logos (study of reason)
which was coined by a French philosopher and the
“Father of Sociology”-August Comte.
SOCIOLOGY

In general sense, sociology is a way of looking at

society and social behavior where sociologists see
beyond individual experiences and focus on group
interaction. This is the perspective where the
sociological imagination is drawn. This explains
why sociology is more than a common sense because
sociologist use special tools in studying society and
human behavior. These tools now gave birth to the
conceptualization of sociological perspective.
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION

Is an awareness of the relationship between an

individual and the wider society.
It is a rare kind of creative thinking that enables
sociologists and ordinary people to understand human
behavior.
It uses symbolic values thinking skills.
It is the ability to see things socially and how they
interact and influence each other.
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION

For instance, to understand the concept of the

sociological imagination to any behavior; take the
simple act of drinking a cup of coffee, for example. We
could argue that coffee is not just a drink but rather it
has symbolic value as part of day-to-day social rituals.
Often the ritual of drinking coffee is much more
important than the act of consuming the coffee itself.
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION

For example, two people who meet “to have coffee”

together are probably more interested in meeting and
chatting than in what they drink.
Another example, a student who is reviewing his
lecture notes is drinking a cup of coffee not because
he only wants to drink it but because he wants to be
awake for the rest of night.
SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION

In short, sociological imagination is the process of

putting meaning to social actions based from our
sociological interpretation.
To have a sociological imagination, a person must
be able to pull away from the situation and think from
an alternative point of view.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Is a perspective on human behavior and its connection

to society as a whole.
It invites us to look for the connections between the
behavior of individual people and the structures of the
society in which they live.
Considered as the most acceptable point of view/truth
that project us the realities of life and our guide to bind
the society as whole.
The true manifestation of “good” or “bad”.
SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

For instance, you as a student is studying because

you are guided by the reality that education is the key
to success where all agrees with this also.
Another, we as citizen of the country needs to vote
because it is viewed to be our right as member of the
society. In addition, we tend to vote because we need
to comply with our constitution law-right to suffrage.
TWO LEVELS SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Macro-perspective – an analysis of social life that

focuses on broad features of society, such as social
class and the relationships of groups to one another;
an approach usually used by functionalist and conflict
theorists.
Assumes that society’s larger structures shape those
individual interactions.
TWO LEVELS SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Micro-perspective – an analysis of social life that

focuses on social interaction; an approach usually
used by symbolic interactionists.
Assumes that society’s larger structures are shaped
through individual interactions.
 AREAS OF
SOCIOLOGY
1. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

This involves social institutions, social groups,

social inequality, social mobility and the
bureaucracy.
1. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
a. Social Institutions- a group of people who have
come together for a common purpose having rights,
privileges, liabilities, goals, or objectives distinct and
independent from those individual members.
Categories of Social Institution:
Community Community Service Organization
Educational Institutions Ethnic or Cultural Groups
Extended Families Government Institutions
Health Care Institutions Religious Institutions
1. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
b. Social Group- a collection of people who interact
with each other and share similar characteristics and
a sense of unity.
Example:
Men Women
Elderly High School Students
Group of Friends
1. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
c. Social Inequalities- refers to relational processes in
society that have the effect of limiting or harming a
group’s social status, social class, and social circle.
Example:
Income Gaps and Biases
Gender Inequalities
Health Care In-comformities
1. SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
d. Social mobility- shifting from one social status to
another, commonly to a status that is either higher or
lower.
e. Bureaucracy- a system of government in which
most of the important decisions are made by state
officials rather than by elected representatives.
2. SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

This deals with human nature which focuses on

social processes as they affect the individual.
It is the scientific study of how people’s thoughts,
feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the actual,
imagined, or implied presence of others.
3. SOCIAL CHANGE

This studies ecological changes, population,

migration, technological change, cultural change,
political processes, social transformation,
modernization, mass communication, and the impact
of natural disaster.
4. POPULATION

This studies the characteristics of population, the

processes, demographics, and the changes as they
influence the economic, political, and social systems,
and vice-versa.
5. APPLIED SOCIOLOGY

It concerns resolving social problems through the

findings of pure sociological research.
It is the utilization of sociological theory, methods,
and skills to collect and analyze data to communicate
findings to understand and resolve pragmatic
problems of clients.
6. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY AND
RESEARCH
This seeks to explain problems, actions or behavior;
or to discover, develop and replicate research tools
that test the validity, applicability, and usefulness of
the results of investigation.
7. HUMAN ECOLOGY

It studies the behavior of a given

population and its relationship to the
group’s social institutions.
SOCIOLOGY AND
OTHER SOCIAL
SCIENCES
There are other social sciences that also focus
on the study of human behavior. Like sociology,
these disciplines also understand human
behavior as it occurs in social life through the
use of scientific methods.
ANTHROPOLOGY

It emphasizes: (1) physical anthropology, which is the

study of physical traits, artifacts, and genetic
mutations, and, (2) cultural anthropology, which
studies social institutions, patterns of organization,
and other aspects of society.
Cultural Anthropology is very similar to sociology.
HISTORY

It studies the chronological record of important

events in the past, including those about people and
places.
Sociology uses data and information that are
provided by history.
ECONOMICS

It studies how goods, services, and wealth are

produced, consumed, and distributed within
societies. A great deal of human behavior is
economically motivated.
POLITICAL SCIENCE

This studies power, governments and political

processes. Sociologists are likewise interested in
power distribution, source of political beliefs, role of
women and ethnic communities in political events,
and social background of political personalities,
among others.
PSYCHOLOGY

It involves the study of human behavior, human

personality, and its development. Sociology takes into
consideration the behavior of people and how they
relate to others in a group.
GEOGRAPHY

It is concerned with the physical environment and the

distribution of plants and animals (Physical
Geography, including humans (Human Geography).
Sociology is interested in how the distribution of
people in a particular region influences social
relationship.
HUMANITIES

It is a science that contains records of human

experiences, high values, sentiments, ideals and
goals. Knowledge of the humanities is important in the
development of the complete person who is ready to
take on his or her responsibilities in this constantly
changing world.
DEVELOPMENT OF
SOCIOLOGY
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN
EUROPE
19TH CENTURY (EUROPE)
Sociological Theorists emerged in Europe
during the Industrial Revolution.
1. AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857)
1. AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857)

A French Philosopher who founded sociology as a

distinct subject
First to coined sociology as the study of society.
He suggested the two basic areas of study of society-
social order and social change.
1. AUGUST COMTE (1798-1857)

Known for his work “Positive Philosophy” (1855).

Developed the method of positivism, which
emphasizes the techniques of observation,
comprehension and experimentation in the
development of knowledge concerning the nature of
society and human action.
THE STUDY OF SOCIAL ORDER
AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Social Statics- considered as the process of holding
society together or united (social order).
Social Dynamics- considered as the definite
process societal change (social change).
2. HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-
1876)
2. HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-
1876)
British popularizer of Sociology
Considered as the first women sociologist
In 1853, she was the first to translate August
Comte’s work “Positive Philosophy” from French
to English.
2. HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-
1876)
Martineau’s first published book was the
“Society in America”, which discusses the
topic marriage, family, race relations, education,
and religion as the focus of sociological study.
2. HARRIET MARTINEAU (1802-
1876)
She viewed that the roles of the scholars also had an
impact in the society.
She believed that scholars should advocate change
to solve the problems that they studied.
As a result, she spoke out about societal problems
favorably in women’s rights, religious tolerance and
the end of slavery.
3. KARL MARX (1818-1883)
3. KARL MARX (1818-1883)
A German Philosopher and a Revolutionary Socialist
Known to his works “The Communist Manifesto and
Das Kapital-anti-captalist works that form the basis of
Marxism.
He viewed that society is divided into two unequal
groups; these are the bourgeoisie (land owners or
the capitalist) and the proletariat (poor members of
the society-especially the farmers)
3. KARL MARX (1818-1883)

He founded the Conflict Theory that suggest people

in the will never be equal from birth to death.
He believed that a social scientist should not only
observe but also work in order to change the
inequalities between different social classes.
4. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-
1903)
4. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-
1903)
An English sociologist and philosopher.
Co-advocator of the theory of evolution of Charles
Darwin, who achieved an influential synthesis of
knowledge, advocating the preeminence of the
individual over society and of science over religion.
4. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-
1903)

His magnum opus was The Synthetic

Philosophy (1896), a comprehensive work
containing volumes on the principles of biology,
psychology, morality and sociology.
4. HERBERT SPENCER (1820-
1903)
He believed that only the fittest societies would
survive over time, leading to general upgrading of the
world as a whole – survival of the fittest (often
credited to Charles Darwin.)
Because of the similarities to Darwin’s ideas,
Spencer’s view of society became known as Social
Darwism
5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
French social scientist who developed a
vigorous methodology combining empirical research
with sociological theory. He is widely regarded as the
founder of the French school of sociology.
He was the first to receive a doctoral degree in
sociology and was appointed as one of the first
professors of Sociology in France.
5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
His pioneering work on suicide using advanced
sociological research with a classical statistical study
showed how the incidence of suicide vary from one
population group to another and that it is influenced
by social forces.
He also argued that behavior cannot be fully
understood in individualistic terms but rather
understood with a larger social context.
5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
He also pointed out that society exists because of
broad consensus, or agreement, among members of
the society.
He viewed society with two image: mechanical
solidarity-societies are guided by widespread
consensus of values and beliefs, strong social
pressures for conformity, and dependence on tradition
and family. (Pre-Modern Society)
5. EMILE DURKHEIM (1858-1917)
Organic Solidarity- societies are guided by social
interdependency based on a web of highly specialized
roles. These specialized roles make members of the
society dependent on one another for goods and
service.
Modern Society
6. MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
6. MAX WEBER (1864-1920)
He was a German sociologist, who thought that to
comprehend social behavior, people must understand
the meanings attached to their actions.
Best known for his thesis of the “Protestant Ethic,”
relating Protestantism to capitalism, and for his ideas
on bureaucracy. 
Developed the “ideal type” model of bureaucracy.
According to him, bureaucracy reflects the value of
the institutions of the society it serves.
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN
THE UNITED STATES
1893
The first Department of Sociology was established at
the University of Chicago. The University was the
leading sociological training and research center at
that time in the United States
DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY IN
THE UNITED STATES
1864-1944
The Chicago School of Sociology produced scholars
whose work emphasized the importance of social
interaction in the development of human thoughts and
action.
1. JANE ADDAMS (1860-1935)
American social reformer and
pacifist, cowinner (with Nicholas
Murray Butler) of the Nobel Prize
for Peace in 1931.
She is probably best known as a
cofounder of Hull House in
Chicago, one of the first social
settlements of North America.
1. JANE ADDAMS (1860-1935)
Her study focused on the problems
caused by the imbalance of power
among the social classes.
Her best known work was the “Hull
House Maps and Papers-1895”.
The study covered such subjects as
wages levels, sweatshops, child
labor, the immigrant experience, and
living conditions in poverty stricken
neighborhoods.
1. JANE ADDAMS (1860-1935)
The groundbreaking work
provided the first serious
discussion of the effects of two
major social forces-
industrialization and
urbanization.
2. LESTER WARD (1841-1913

He believed that social progress is

possible only through intelligent
social action.
He also advocate the use of
scientific knowledge and
investigation to guide people in
restructuring society towards
improvement.
3. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD (1863-
1931)

He advocated that self and society

are one and individuals internalize
social role expectations, social
values and norms.
4. ROBERT PARK (1864-1944)

He was interested in urban

processes and development.
5. W.E.B. DUBOIS (1868-1963)
An African American educator and
social activist, influenced the early
development of sociology in the
United States.
He used community studies
underscore the significance of race
in American Society; believed that
sociologists should be involved in
social reforms as well as academic
study.
6. ROBERT MERTON (1919)
He was concerned with linking
general theory to empirical testing.
He contributed immensely to the
understanding of concepts such as
social structures, deviance, and
bureaucracies.
7. TALCOTT PARSONS (1902-
1979)
He developed a general theory of
action and analyzed the social
phenomena.
MAJOR THEORETICAL
PERSPECTIVES
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY
Also known as Structural Functionalism.
Authored by Emile Durkheim.
Its focus is on maintaining social order or stability.
According to functionalist theory, social order in the
society is maintained through social consensus (a
decision by which the members of the society agrees
together and develop together as major part of the
society role), whereby people and groups agree to
cooperate in order to pursue common goals.
PICTURING SOCIAL CONSENSUS
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY
In other words, most people agree on what is best for
the society and work together to ensure that social
system runs smoothly.
Believes that all social structures (human being,
family, religion, education, economy, and the society
itself) has their on specific functions or roles in the
society that helps maintain stability or social order.
THE THREE TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
a. Manifest Function - refers to the intended function
of social policies, processes, or actions that are
consciously and deliberately designed to be
beneficial in its effect on society. It is observable or
obvious in nature.
Example:
School Hospitals Car Speed
Government Agencies
THE THREE TYPES OF FUNCTIONS
b. Latent Function - one that is not consciously
intended, but that, nonetheless, has a beneficial
effect on society. latent function is neither conscious
nor deliberate, but also produce benefit. This is, in
effect, unintended positive consequences.
Example:
Knowledge Health Plans Love Care Good
Governance
ASSUMPTIONS OF FUNCTIONALISM
a. A society is a relatively integrated whole.
b. A society tends to seek relative stability.
c. Most aspects of a society contribute to the society’s
well-being and survival.
d. All structures in the society holds specific functions
and roles that benefits each other structure as well
as society as a whole.
e. A society rest on the consensus of its members.
CONFLICT THEORY
Authored by Karl Marx.
It focuses on social conflict and change,
competition and constraint within a society.
It posits that society is made up of conflicting groups,
pursuing their on interests.
Social order is maintained through coercion (the
practice of persuading someone to do something by
using force or threats).
CONFLICT THEORY
Authored by Karl Marx.
It focuses on social conflict and change,
competition and constraint within a society.
It posits that society is made up of conflicting groups,
pursuing their on interests.
Social order is maintained through coercion (the
practice of persuading someone to do something by
using force or threats) whereby social order is
imposed by the powerful groups over the weak.
CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict theory classified society according to status
or social classes, wherein, the land owner wear
(Bourgeoisie) born to dominate and poor wear born to
be slave (Proletariat)
Social class, also called class, a group of people
within a society who possess the same
socioeconomic status. Due to this division, class
struggle emerges.
CONFLICT THEORY
Class Struggle - Also called class conflict. conflict
between different classes in a community resulting
from different social or economic positions and
reflecting opposed interests.
Also called class war, class warfare. (in Marxist
thought) the struggle for political and economic power
carried on between capitalists and workers.
ASSUMPTIONS OF CONFLICT
THEORY
a. A society experiences inconsistency and conflict
everywhere.
b. A society is continually subjected to change.
c. A society involves the constraint and coercion of
some members of society.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONIST THEORY
Authored by Herbert Blumer.
Focuses on how individuals interact within a society
using symbols to maintain connections.
Interactionism suggest that society is composed of
individuals whose actions depends on interpreting
each other’s behavior. Social order is maintained
through constant negotiations between individuals
and groups trying to understand each other’s actions
and reactions.
ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS:
a. Meaning – the individuals responds to people and
things based on the meanings he or she gives to
those people or thing.
b. Language – meanings arise out of the social
interaction, through the vehicle of language, that the
individuals has with others.
c. Thought – individual adjusts and modifies meanings
through thought- a kind of internal conversation.
IMPORTANCE OF
SOCIOLOGY
IMPORTANCE!!!
1. Sociology broadens our perspective to understand
culture and other situations.

2. It promotes accurate study about human behavior,

thereby eliminating superstitions and
misconceptions.
IMPORTANCE!!!
3. It improves the quality of life and the lives of others
around us by applying scientific investigation to find
appropriate solutions to problems of society.

4. Results of sociological investigation are useful in

planning actions for the betterment of society.
IMPORTANCE!!!
5. Aside from teaching, sociologists are employed by
government, business, industrial, social, civic, and
religious entities all over the world as researchers
and consultants.

6. For students of sociology, it develops their

intellectual potentials towards preparing them for
professional and career opportunities.
SOCIOLOGICAL
RESEARCH
METHODS
1. SURVEY
Allows sociologists to collect data on attitudes and
opinions from large numbers of people. Two
techniques are commonly used to gather informative
survey- questionnaires and interviews.
2. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING
SOURCES
a. Historical Method – it involves examining any
materials from the past that contain information of
sociological interest. It enables the researchers to
make comparisons between events of today and
events that happened in the recent past or long ago
2. ANALYSIS OF EXISTING
SOURCES
b. Content Analysis- the process involves counting
the number of times a particular word, phrase, idea,
event, symbol, or other element appears in a given
context. Content analysis can be used.
3. OBSERVATIONAL STUDIES

Researchers observe the behavior individuals and

groups in actual social settings. Data can be collected
in two ways, through detached observation or through
participant’s observation.
4. CASE STUDY
It is an interview analysis of a person, group, event,
or problem.
Case studies tend to rely on observational
techniques.
Is a research method involving an up-close, in-depth,
and detailed examination of a subject of study
(the case), as well as its related contextual conditions.
RESEARCH
ETHICS
RESEARCH ETHICS

Ethics are the moral principles that a person must

follow, irrespective of the place or time. Behaving
ethically involves doing the right thing at the right
time. Research ethics focus on the moral principles
that researchers must follow in their respective fields
of research.
RESEARCH ETHICS

Research ethics calls for researchers to ensure the

welfare of respondents. Researchers must be honest and
disclose all details of their research. Moreover,
sociologists should not do research that could be harmful
to society.
END OF LESSON 2:

THANK YOU AND GOD

BLESS!!!