INTRODUCTIO

N TO LEXICO-
GRAMMAR
BY :
FARHAN DAVID ERLANGGA 19202244038
ARIANTO PRABOWO
DITA PRAMUDIA
 MIND MAP

Principles of grammatical
Introduction
analysis

The demands we make of

language

The traffic lights revisited

Descriptive grammar
A.INTRODUCTION
•Lexicogrammar, also called lexical grammar, is a term
used in systemic functional linguistics (SFL) to emphasize
the interdependence of vocabulary (lexis) and syntax
(grammar). The term, introduced by renowned linguist
M.A.K. Halliday, is an amalgamation of the words
"lexicon" and "grammar." Adjective: lexicogrammatical.
•lexicogrammar is diversified into a metafunctional
spectrum, extended in delicacy from grammar to lexis,
and ordered into a series of ranked units," (Halliday 2013).
 B.THE TRAFFIC LIGHTS REVISITED

01 02 03

The lexico-grammarical level was

described simply as an Two limitations:
Traffc lights were described as a two-level 1. it does not allow us to mean very much:
intermediate level of linguistic
semiotic system, involving a level of content in fact, we can only make three
coding. We must now consider in
realized through a level of expression. meanings.
more detail what the function of
Language, on the other hand, was seen to 2. 2. it only allows us to mean one thing at a
this level is.
involve three Jevels: two levels of content time: there is a one-to-one (be unique)
(semantics and lexico-grammar), encoded in rela tionship between content and
phonology. The difference between the simple expression
and the complex semiotic systems, was the
presence of this level of wording, the lexico-
grammar.
B1.Adding new contents

•If we wish to extend the systern so

that we can mean more things (for
example, we want to add the
meaning 'reverse' to the system),
we will have to find a new light to
stand for this meaning. For each
new content we must invent a new
expression. For example, we could
incroduce a PINK light to encode
this new meaning, giving us System
5.1.
 An alternative stategy is to extend the system so that it is able to mean more than one thing
at a time. Thus, an expression is to realize more than one content. This can be done through
the use of complex signs, or sign sequences. For example, if we want to mean both 'stop'
and “danger ahead', we could:

1. introduce a new complex sign, e.g. a RED LIGHT with a
BLACK DOT. This expression is complex as it can be broken
down into two parts: a part meaning 'stop' (the colour red) and a
part meaning 'danger ahead” (the black dot). Such complex
signs are in fact like many of our normal road signs.
2. introduce a sequence of signs, e.g.
alternating a RED LIGHT followed by
a flashing AMBER light would mean
both 'stop' and “danger ahead'.

B2.Simultaneous meanings
 C.THE DEMANDS WE MAKE OF
LANGUAGE

• However, with the semiotic system of language, we want to make many

many more meanings than that. In fact, the amazing demand we make of
language is that we want to use it to mean anything at all to make an
infinite number of meanings.
 Firstly, language allows us to mean new things: you can say things
that no one has ever said before, and you have no trouble
understanding things that you have never heard before.

Language meets this demand, in that

it has an unlimited creative potential. Secondly, language allows us to mean anything: it is very rare that,
That is ; as a speaker of a language, you would come to a point where all of a
sudden you cannot make the meanings you want co because the
system is too limited.

Since we are able to make infinite meanings in language, language

is very different from the traffic lights. The explanation for this
difference lies in the fact that language is not a bi-unigue semiotic
system. There is not a one-to-one correspondence between the
content levels of language and the expression level.
 C1. Lexico-grammar: the difference

How has language

Then, that language got away from this
How is it?
is different? restriction of bi-
uniqueness?
From the picture we can conclude that :

01
Similarly, structural differences are
responsible for the meaning differences
between talking about something that
02
habitually happens, versus something
happening now, or in the past (different
verbal group patterns).
One part of what these sentences mean is the
words that are used (that we're talking about
eggs and not books, John and not the dog,
eating and not running). Buta second part of
their meanings is the arrangement of these
words in structures. It is the structural
differences that give us the meaning
differences between making a statement or
asking a guestion or commanding (technically,
different mood choices). (These structural differences underlie
the need for slight modifications to the
03
verbal element (eat) in order to express
different meanings.)
 C2. Extending language

That the lexico-grammar provides language with an in-built creative potential

can be demonstrated by attempting to extend language. s Letus say that we
want to make a new lexical meaning. For instance, we invent a machine that
writes lectures automatically - you just feed in the topic, a list of the main
points, and then you press a button and off it goes.
 The first possible way is by inventing a totally
new word, i.e. by creating a new sign, an
arbitrary pairing of a content and an expression.

How can I encode this new meaning in the language?

We took a certain number of sounds of English

and arranged them in a novel way. However, it is
important to note that we did not take just any
sounds.
Having 'coined' my new word in keeping with
the phonological rules of English (the rules of
the expression plane), it is now available for
use in structures:

Although we only invented one word,

we automatically have a creative
potential to do a variety of new things
with it. This creative potential comes
from the grammar — the principles of
coding for English which allow us to
turn a noun into a verb, adjective,
adverb, etc. and thus use it in a range
of structures to make different
meanings.
C3. Simultaneous meanings in language

What lexico-grammar does for language is to give it a creative potential: a

way of creating new meanings, by inventing new signs which then get
incorporated into the lexico-grammar of the language, by simply arranging
existing signs in different ways, or by using existing structures in atypical
ways.
These sentences
demonstrate that a
lexico-grammar
enables language not
only to make more
meanings (to provide
an unlimited creative
potential) but also to
mean several things at
once. This is possible
because the lexico-
grammar enables
language to have
several simultaneous
layers of structure.
 D.PRINCIPLES OF
GRAMATICAL ANALYSIS

• Having established that it is the lexico-grammar which

gives language its creative potential, we will now focus
on how the lexico-grammar is organized so that its
creative potential can be exploited.
• There are two preliminary observations that we can make
of this level of lexico-grammar.
• The first is that we find a number of different kinds of
units.
• The second is that these units are related to each other
through constituency , smaller units make up bigger
units, and bigger units are made up of smaller units.
 Units Criteria used to identify units
paragraph Double spacing
sentences Full-stop
Comma-unit comma
word space
letter Smalker spaces

A ranked constituent analysis rank scale

Constituent->units at each level are made
up of one or more of the units at the level
bellow.
Ranked -> organized in terms of biggest to
smallest.
indicates that the letter is the ultimate
constitute of writing here is the smallest unit
here .Establishing the constituency
hierarchy for the lexical grammar is an
important first step in examining
grammatical structure.
 D1.Gramatical constituent : rank scale

Since text does not belong in the lexical grammatical rank scale and sentence cannot
represent both written and spoken expressions we need to establish again rank scale at
the lexical grammatical stratum in systemic approach which can be seen as follow .

Klaus and Klaus complex are on the same rank because the relationship
between closing clause complex is not a constituency relationship but
logical structure relationship of interdependency
Clause-clausecomplex

Group/phrase

Each unit on the rank scale relates to the other units through constituency Word
and each carries patterns of different kinds that requires a different structure
description . Morphems
 D2.Techniques in describing structures

1.Bracketing

First the Clause is bracketed into the phrase or

groups with make it up .

• Involves taking the largest grammatical constituent then dividing it

into the units which make it up at each rank .
• graphical presentations in the form of brackets of three diagrams Then its group or face is bracketed into the words
• to Simply put it simply the steps of minimal breaking now this is that it up .
our as follow :
 For Instance

The little girl has spent so much time in other’s shoes .

Embedding/Rank • A way of boosting the content of clauses by exploiting the clauses potential
shift to recycle through drinks .
• sometimes glass constitute seems to be a complex structure in itself so this
technique deals with bracketing of clouds complex including embedded
clauses.
 Labelling

Example :
it is easy to demonstrate that class and function
labels do not always match up. Items of the
same class can perform different functions, and
the same functions can be performed by items of
different classes. For example:
• Students don't like books. The different
functional roles of Subject (students) and
Object (books) are both filled by items of the
same class (nouns)
• Students don't like doing exams, The
functional role of Object, filled by a nominal
element in the first example, is here Filled by
a non finite clause (doing exams)
 E.DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

-An objective non judgemental Descripcion off the grammatical

What does descriptive constructions in language .
grammar mean? -An examination of how language is actually being used in writing
an in speech .

What does descriptive It examines the principles and patterns that underlie the use of
graamar do with words phrases clauses and sentences .
language?

How ? Play making statements an assessment about appropriacy or

inappropriacy.
THANK YOU