EARTH

QUAKE
Aberin, Monique
Behiga, Jeha
Bonita, Juizy Jenn
WHAT IS AN EARTHQUAKE?

An earthquake is a weak to violent shaking of the ground produced by

the sudden movement of rock materials below the earth’s surface.
 01
ELASTIC
REBOUND
THEORY
Harry Fielding Reid was an American geophysicist.
He was notable for his contributions to seismology,
particularly his theory of elastic rebound that related
faults to earthquakes.
In geology, the elastic-rebound theory is an explanation for how energy is released during
an earthquake. As the Earth's crust deforms, the rocks which span the opposing sides of a
fault are subjected to shear stress. Slowly they deform, until their internal rigidity is
exceeded.

This gradual accumulation and release of stress and strain is now referred to as the "elastic
rebound theory" of earthquakes. Most earthquakes are the result of the sudden elastic
rebound of previously stored energy.
 02
EARTHQUAKE
GENERATORS
 There are eight major and several
minor earthquakes generator in the
Philippines. These major tectonic
structures are zones where differential
movement of solid material are likely to
occur and consequently generating
earthquakes.
The Eurasian Plate (or South China Plate) subducts eastward beneath
Luzon Island along the Manila Trench, and the Philippine Sea Plate
subducts westward along the East Luzon Trench simultaneously as
shown in Figure 2.1.2. Because of this complex tectonic setting, Luzon
Island shows high seismic activity. The Philippine Islands are
sandwiched between two opposite subduction zones
 03
FOCUS AND
EPICENTER;
MAGNITUDE
AND INTENSITY
FOCUS & EPICENTER
FOCUS EPICENTER
● The focus is the place inside Earth’s ● The epicenter is the point on the
crust where an earthquake earth's surface vertically above the
originates. hypocenter (or focus), point in the
● When energy is released at the crust where a seismic rupture
focus, seismic waves travel outward begins.
from that point in all directions.
There are different types of seismic
waves, each one traveling at varying
speeds and motions. It's these waves
that you feel during an earthquake.
MAGNITUDE
Magnitude is the size of the earthquake. An earthquake has a single
magnitude. The shaking that it causes has many values that vary from place to
place based on distance, type of surface material, and other factors

The Richter Scale – also called the Richter magnitude scale or Richter's

magnitude scale, is a measure of the strength of earthquakes, developed by
Charles Francis Richter and presented in his landmark 1935 paper, where he
called it the “magnitude scale”.
1.  
INTENSITY
The intensity is a number (written as a Roman numeral) describing the
severity of an earthquake in terms of its effects on the earth's surface and on
humans and their structures. Several scales exist, but the ones most commonly
used in the United States are the Modified Mercalli scale and the Rossi-Forel
scale and PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS) is used in the
Philippines.
 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Intensity Shaking Description
Scale
I Scarcely Perceptible to people under favorable circumstances. Delicately
balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still Water in containers
oscillates slowly.
II Slightly Felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing
Felt slightly. Still Water in containers oscillates noticeably.
III Weak Felt by many people indoors especially in upper floors of
buildings. Vibration is felt like one passing of a light truck.
Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging
objects swing moderately. Still water in containers oscillates
moderately.
IV Moderately Felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light
Strong sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of heavy truck.
Hanging objectsswing considerably. Dinner, plates, glasses, windows and
doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood framed buildings creak. Standing
motor cars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed.
Water in containers oscillate strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be
heard.
V Strong Generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping
people are awakened. Some are frightened, some run outdoors. Strong
shaking and rocking felt throughout building. Hanging objects swing
violently. Dining utensils clatter and clink; some are broken. Small, light
and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Liquids spill from filled open
containers. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of leaves and
twigs of trees are noticeable.
VI Very Strong Many people are frightened; many run outdoors. Some people lose their
balance. motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects or furniture
move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may
crack. Very old or poorly built houses and man-made structures are
slightly damaged though well-built structures are not affected. Limited
rockfalls and rolling boulders occur in hilly to mountainous areas and
escarpments. Trees are noticeably shaken.
VII Destructive Most people are frightened and run outdoors. People find it difficult to
stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn or topple. Big
church bells may ring. Old or poorly-built structures suffer considerable
damage. Some well-built structures are slightly damaged. Some cracks
may appear on dikes, fish ponds, road surface, or concrete hollow block
walls. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading and landslides are observed.
Trees are shaken strongly. (Liquefaction is a process by which loose
saturated sand lose strength during an earthquake and behave like liquid).
VIII Very Destructive People are panicky. People find it difficult to stand even outdoors. Many
well-built buildings are considerably damaged. Concrete dikes and
foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground settling or toppling.
Railway tracks are bent or broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted
or overturned. Utility posts, towers and monuments mat tilt or topple.
Water and sewer pipes may be bent, twisted or broken. Liquefaction and
lateral spreading cause man- made structure to sink, tilt or topple.
Numerous landslides and rockfalls occur in mountainous and hilly areas.
Boulders are thrown out from their positions particularly near the
epicenter. Fissures and faults rapture may be observed. Trees are violently
shaken. Water splash or stop over dikes or banks of rivers.
IX Devastating People are forcibly thrown to ground. Many cry and shake with fear. Most
buildings are totally damaged. bridges and elevated concrete structures
are toppled or destroyed. Numerous utility posts, towers and monument
are tilted, toppled or broken. Water sewer pipes are bent, twisted or
broken. Landslides and liquefaction with lateral spreading and sand boils
are widespread. the ground is distorted into undulations. Trees are shaken
very violently with some toppled or broken. Boulders are commonly
thrown out. River water splashes violently on slops over dikes and banks.
X Completely Practically all man-made structures are destroyed. Massive landslides and
Devastating liquefaction, large scale subsidence and uplifting of land forms and many
ground fissures are observed. Changes in river courses and destructive
seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are toppled, broken and uprooted.
 04
SEISMIC WAVES
 Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through Earth's layers, and
are a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large
landslides and large man-made explosions that give out low-frequency acoustic
energy. Many other natural and anthropogenic sources create low-amplitude
waves commonly referred to as ambient vibrations. Seismic waves are studied
by geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic wave fields are recorded by a
seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer.
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
• Body waves
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth along paths
controlled by the material properties in terms of density and modulus
(stiffness).

• Surface Waves
Seismic surface waves travel along the Earth's surface.

• P and S waves in Earth’s mantle and core

When an earthquake occurs, seismographs near the epicenter are
able to record both P and S waves, but those at a greater distance no
longer detect the high frequencies of the first S wave.
 BODY WAVES
● Primary Waves
Primary waves (P-waves) are
compressional waves that are longitudinal in
nature. P-waves are pressure waves that travel
faster than other waves through the earth to
arrive at seismograph stations first, hence the
name "Primary". These waves can travel
through any type of material, including fluids,
and can travel nearly 1.7 times faster than the
S-waves. In air, they take the form of sound
waves, hence they travel at the speed of sound.
Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in
water and about 5000 m/s in granite.
● Secondary Waves
Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are
transverse in nature. Following an earthquake event, S-
waves arrive at seismograph stations after the faster-
moving P-waves and displace the ground perpendicular to
the direction of propagation. Depending on the
propagational direction, the wave can take on different
surface characteristics; for example, in the case of
horizontally polarized S waves, the ground moves
alternately to one side and then the other. S-waves can
travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do
not support shear stresses. S-waves are slower than P-
waves, and speeds are typically around 60% of that of P-
waves in any given material. Shear waves can't travel
through any liquid medium
SURFACE WAVES
Rayleigh waves
also called ground roll, are surface waves that travel as
ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves on the
surface of water (note, however, that the associated particle
motion at shallow depths is retrograde, and that the restoring
force in Rayleigh and in other seismic waves is elastic, not
gravitational as for water waves). The existence of these waves
was predicted by John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, in 1885.
They are slower than body waves, roughly 90% of the velocity
of S waves for typical homogeneous elastic media. In a layered
medium (like the crust and upper mantle) the velocity of the
Rayleigh waves depends on their frequency and wavelength.
Love waves
Love waves are horizontally polarized shear
waves (SH waves), existing only in the presence
of a semi-infinite medium overlain by an upper
layer of finite thickness. They are named after
Augustus Edward Hough Love, a British
mathematician who created a mathematical
model of the waves in 1911. They usually travel
slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of
the S wave velocity, and have the largest
amplitude.
 Stoneley Waves
A Stoneley wave is a type of boundary wave (or
interface wave) that propagates along a solid-fluid boundary
or, under specific conditions, also along a solid-solid
boundary. Amplitudes of Stoneley waves have their
maximum values at the boundary between the two
contacting media and decay exponentially towards the depth
of each of them. These waves can be generated along the
walls of a fluid-filled borehole, being an important source of
coherent noise in vertical seismic profiles (VSP) and making
up the low frequency component of the source in sonic
logging. The equation for Stoneley waves was first given by
Dr. Robert Stoneley (1894–1976), Emeritus Professor of
Seismology, Cambridge.
Normal Modes

Free oscillations of the Earth are standing waves, the result of interference between two
surface waves traveling in opposite directions. Interference of Rayleigh waves results in
spheroidal oscillation S while interference of Love waves gives toroidal oscillation T. The
modes of oscillations are specified by three numbers, where l is the angular order number
(or spherical harmonic degree, see Spherical harmonics for more details). The number m is
the azimuthal order number. It may take on 2l+1 values from −l to +l. The number n is the
radial order number. It means the wave with n zero crossings in radius. For spherically
symmetric Earth the period for given n and l does not depend on m.
P & S WAVES IN EARTH'S MANTLE
AND CORE
When an earthquake occurs, seismographs near the epicenter are able to record both P and
S waves, but those at a greater distance no longer detect the high frequencies of the first S
wave. Since shear waves cannot pass through liquids, this phenomenon was original
evidence for the now well-established observation that the Earth has a liquid outer core, as
demonstrated by Richard Dixon Oldham. This kind of observation has also been used to
argue, by seismic testing, that the Moon has a solid core, although recent geodetic studies
suggest the core is still molten.
USEFULNESS OF P & S WAVES IN
LOCATING AN EARTHQUAKE
In the case of local or nearby earthquakes, the difference in the arrival times of the P and S
waves can be used to determine the distance to the event.

Assume a seismometer are is far enough from the earthquake that the waves travel roughly
horizontally, which is about 50 to 500 km for shallow earthquakes. When an earthquake occurs
the P and S waves travel outward from the region of the fault that ruptured and the P waves arrive
at the seismometer first, followed by the S-wave. Once the S-wave arrives we can measure the
time interval between the onset of P-wave and the onset of S-wave shaking.
 If we have two other seismometers
which recorded the same earthquake, we
could make a similar measurement and
construct a circle of possible locations for
each seismometer. Since the earthquake
location since it must lie on each circle
centered on a seismometer, if we plot
three or more circles on a map we could
find that the three circles will intersect at
a single location - the earthquake's
epicenter.
 05
ASSOCIATED
HAZARDS
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
The type of hazard depends on the strength of seismic activity, along with such factors as
local topographic and built features, subsurface geology and groundwater. A large
earthquake will always be followed by a sequence of aftershocks.

• Ground Shaking
If an earthquake generates a large enough shaking intensity, structures like buildings,
bridges and dams can be severely damaged, and cliffs and sloping ground destabilized.
Perched or stacked objects may fall and injure or bury anyone close by.
• Fire
The rapid burning of combustible material with the evolution of heat and usually
accompanied by flame.
EARTHQUAKE HAZARDS
• Tsunami
Tsunamis are long wavelength oceanic waves
generated by the sudden displacement of
seawater by a shallow earthquake, volcanic
eruption or submarine landslide.

• Landslides and Rockfalls

Groundshaking due to earthquakes
destabilises cliffs and steep slopes, causing
landslides and rockfalls as a significant side-
effect.
• Subsidence and Lateral Spreading
Subsidence, or lowering of the ground surface, often
occurs during earthquakes. This may be due to
downward vertical displacement on one side of a fault
and can sometimes affect a huge area of land. Coastal
areas can become permanently flooded as a result.
Subsidence can also occur as ground shaking causes
loose sediments to “settle’ and to lose their load bearing
strength or to slump down sloping ground. Lateral
spreading occurs where sloping ground starts to move
downhill, causing cracks to open up, that are often seen
along hill crests and river banks.
• Liquefaction
Liquefaction occurs when waterlogged sediments are
agitated by seismic shaking. This separates the grains
from each other, reducing their load bearing capacity.
Buildings and other structures can sink down into the
ground or tilt over, whilst underground pipes and tanks
may rise up to the surface.

When the vibrations stop the sediments settle down

again, squeezing groundwater out of fissures and holes
in the ground to cause flooding. The aftermath of
liquefaction can leave large areas covered in a deep
layer of mud
 06
HAZARDS
PREDICTABILITY,
EARLY WARNING
SYSTEMS, &
RESPONSE
PREDICTABILITY OF HAZARDS
Predicting the size, location, and timing of natural hazards is virtually impossible, but now,
earth scientists are able to forecast hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
wildfires, and landslides using fractals.

Some hazards are easier to predict than others. For example, volcanoes normally give
warning signs before they erupt and tropical storms can be tracked from development to
landfall. However, others like earthquakes are much harder to predict. Generally speaking
hazards that hit with no warning are going to be more serious.
TYPES OF EARLY WARNING
SYSTEMS
By type of hazard

• Geological hazards like tsunamis, earthquakes, volcanic activity, and landslides

• Hydrometeorological hazards including severe weather in land and at sea, floods,
droughts, hurricanes, typhoons and cyclones, tornados, cold and heat waves, etc.
• Forest fires
• Biological hazards including insect plagues like locust outbreaks and harmful algae
blooms
• Health hazards including vector-borne diseases, viruses and other types of diseases
• For pests and diseases on crops and livestock
By the level at which it is operated

• Community or people-centered early warning systems, operated at a more local level

by a municipal government or a community. The most typical systems of this kind
address flood.
• National early warning systems operated by a national-level government agency like a
meteorological department, a geological observatory or institute, a health or an
agricultural ministry.
• Regional systems operated at a more regional level. Two examples in this category are
the Famine Early Warning System Network (FEWSNET) operated by the United States
of America in various regions of the world and the European Meteoalarm.
• Global systems operated at the international level by international organizations like
the WHO and FAO.
As a single or multi-hazard system:

• Single-hazard: Community-operated systems usually address only one type of hazard.

• Multi-hazard: Meteorological departments, ministries of health and agriculture operate
early warning systems address a variety of hazards or cascading hazards.
RESPONSE
Preparedness strategies focus on ensuring that emergency services and people at risk are
aware of how to react during an event. After the hazard happens response then happens.

The response section of the hazard cycle is focused on the immediate needs of the
population, such as the protection of life and property and includes firefighting,
emergency medical response, evacuation and transportation, decontamination, and the
provision of food, water and shelter to victims.
Recovery is the equivalent to long-term responses and is where the city authorities focus
on clean-up and rebuilding. This can take months or even years.

Finally, mitigation involves authorities looking at the impact of the hazard and rebuilding
in a better way to reduce similar impacts from a future hazard. This can involve the
building of earthquake proof buildings for example. Recovery and mitigation take place at
the same time. After the cycle is complete, emergency planners will revisit the cycle and
review and amend the aspect of preparedness in light of the success of the responses in the
recent hazard.