As independent particles, atoms have relatively high

potential energies (energy stored in atoms due to

the
arrangement of the particles).
Nature favors arrangement in which potential energy
is minimized.
Most atoms are less stable existing by themselves
than when they are combined.
By bonding with each other, atoms decrease in
potential energy, creating more stable arrangements.
Why atoms combine – to minimize their potential
energy and achieve a stable state
chemical bond - a mutual electrical attraction
between the nuclei and valence electrons of
different atoms that binds the atoms together
Types of Chemical Bonds
I. Covalent bonding - results from the sharing of
electron pairs between two atoms
molecule - a neutral group of atoms that are held
together by bond energy
molecular compound – a chemical compound
whose simplest units are molecules
chemical formula – indicates the relative numbers
of atoms of each kind in a chemical compound by
using atomic symbols and numerical subscripts
molecular formula – shows the types and numbers
of atoms combined in a single molecule of a
molecular compound
diatomic molecule – molecule containing only two
atoms
While all compounds are molecules, not all
molecules are compounds.
H2O and C12H22O11 are molecular compounds
made up of H2O and C12H22O11 molecules
O2 is a diatomic molecule but not a compound. It
is a diatomic element because it is made from
atoms of only one element.
Examples of diatomic compounds include HCl, CO,

NO, etc.
 Formation of a Covalent Bond

Potential energy changes during the formation of a hydrogen-hydrogen bond.

(a) The separated hydrogen atoms do not affect each other. (b) Potential
energy decreases as the atoms are drawn together by attractive forces. (c)
Potential energy is at a minimum when attractive forces are balanced by
repulsive forces. (d) Potential energy increases when repulsion between like
charges outweighs attraction between opposite charges.
Characteristics of the Covalent Bond
Bond length - the distance between two bonded
atoms at their minimum potential energy. The
bond length of a hydrogen is 74 pm.
In forming a bond, atoms release energy as they
change from isolated individual atoms to parts of a
molecule.
The amount of energy released equals the difference
between the potential energy at the zero level
(separated atoms) and at the bottom level (bonded
atoms).
Bond energy - the energy required to break a
chemical bond and form neutral isolated atoms; equal to
the amount of energy released during bonding
Octet rule refers to the tendency of atoms to prefer
to have eight electrons in the valence shell
Electron-dot notation - an electron-configuration
notation in which only the valence electrons of an
atom of a particular element are shown, indicated
by dots placed around the element's symbol

Lewis structures - formulas in which atomic

symbols represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons,
dot-pairs or dashes between two atomic symbols
represent electron pairs in covalent bonds, and dots
adjacent to only one atomic symbol represent
unshared electrons
Writing Lewis Structures
1. Determine the type and number of atoms in the
molecule.
2. Write the electron-dot notation for each type of atom in
the molecule.
3. Determine the total number of valence electrons
available in the atoms to be combined.
4. Arrange the atoms to form a skeleton structure for
the molecule. If carbon is present, it is the central
atom. Otherwise, the least-electronegative atom is
central (except for hydrogen, which is never central).
Then connect the atoms by electron-pair bonds.
5. Add unshared pairs of electrons to each nonmetal
atom (except hydrogen) such that each is
surrounded by eight electrons.
6. Count the electrons in the structure to be sure
that the number of valence electrons used equals
the number available. Be sure the central atom
and other atoms besides hydrogen have an octet.
Ex. Write the Lewis structure for nitric acid (HNO3) in
which the three O atoms are bonded to the central
N atom and the H atom is bonded to one of the O
atoms

→ →

lone pairs—pairs of valence electrons that are not

involved in covalent bond formation
Types of Covalent Bonds
A. nonpolar covalent bond - a covalent bond in
which the bonding electrons are shared equally
by the bonded atoms, resulting in a balanced
distribution of electrical ionic charge
Example 1) H2
Example 2: Cl2

Example 3: O2
More Nonpolar Compounds

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is nonpolar because it has a linear,

symmetrical structure, with 2 oxygen atoms of equal
electronegativity pulling the electron density from carbon
at an angle of 180 degrees from either direction. Polarity
in a molecule occurs due to the unequal sharing of valence
electrons; since there’s no unequal sharing of valence
electrons in the case of carbon dioxide, it is nonpolar.
More Nonpolar Compounds

Methane, the main component of natural gas, is a nonpolar

molecule. In it, four hydrogen atoms surround a single
carbon in a three-dimensional arrangement shaped like a
four-sided pyramid. The symmetry of the hydrogens on the
corners of the pyramid evenly distribute electric charge on
the molecule, making it nonpolar.
B. polar-covalent bond - a covalent bond in which
the bonded atoms have an unequal attraction for
the shared electrons
Ex. HCl H2O
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
1. Elements that follow the Duet Rule or Rule of Two (a
stable molecule is formed when two electrons are
shared) such as H, Li, and Be.
a) BeCl2

b) BeH2
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
2. Some group 3 elements like Boron (B) which
forms three covalent bonds with a total of six
electrons in the outermost shell
Ex. BCl3
Exceptions to the Octet Rule
3. Other elements can be surrounded by more than
8 electrons when they combine with highly
electronegative elements like fluorine, oxygen,
and chlorine.

P has 5 valence electrons and S has 6. In PCl5, P is

surrounded by 10 electrons while in SF6, S is
surrounded by 12.
Multiple Covalent Bonds
1. Double covalent bond or double bond
Ex. C2H4

2. Triple bond
a. N2

b. C2H2
Resonance - bonding in molecules or ions that
cannot be correctly represented by a single
Lewis structure
resonance structure or resonance hybrid - one of
two or more alternative Lewis structures for a
molecule that cannot be described fully with a
single Lewis structure
Ionic Bonding - chemical bonding that results from
the electrical attraction between cations and anions
ionic compound - composed of positive and
negative ions that are combined so that the
numbers of positive and negative charges are equal
formula unit - the simplest collection of atoms from
which an ionic compound's formula can be
established
In an ionic crystal, ions minimize their potential
energy by combining in an orderly arrangement
known as a crystal lattice
Types of Chemical Bonds
1. Ionic bonding
2. Covalent bonding
A. Nonpolar covalent bonding
B. Polar covalent bonding
Use electronegativity differences and Figure 2 to
classify bonding between S, and the following
elements: hydrogen, H; cesium, Cs; and chlorine, Cl.
In each pair, which atom will be more negative?
Electronegativities from Figure 20/161
S=2.5 H = 2.1 Cs = 0.7 Cl = 3.0
Bonding Electronegativity Bond Type More Negative
between S Difference Atom
and

H 2.5-2.1 = 0.4 polar-covalent S

Cs 2.5 - 0.7 = 1.8 ionic S

Cl 3.0-2.5 = 0.5 polar-covalent Cl

A Comparison of Ionic and Molecular Compounds
1. The forces of attraction between molecules are
much weaker than the forces among formula
units in ionic bonding.
2. Molecular compounds melt at low temperatures;
many are gaseous at room temperature.
3. Ionic compounds generally have higher melting
and boiling points.
4. Ionic compounds are hard but brittle.
5. In the molten state, ionic compounds are
electrical conductors because the ions can move
freely to carry electrical current.
 PROPERTIES IONIC COMPOUNDS COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Shape Brittle solid at room May exist as solid, liquid, or

temperature gas
Melting & Boiling points High Low

Electrical conductivity Conduct electricity in Do not conduct electricity

aqueous or molten state
Solubility in water Soluble Insoluble

Solubility in organic solvent Insoluble Soluble

polyatomic ion - a charged group of covalently

bonded atoms; charge results from an excess of
electrons (negative charge) or a shortage of
electrons (positive charge)
Polyatomic Ions
metallic bonding - the chemical bonding that
results from the attraction between metal atoms
and the surrounding sea of electrons

Quora
Metallic Properties
 high electrical and thermal conductivity
 strong absorbers and reflectors of light
 Brilliant
 Malleable - the ability to be hammered or beaten
into thin sheet
 Ductile - the ability to be drawn, pulled, or
extruded through a small opening to produce a
wire