ACIDS AND BASES

•Acids and bases are important classes of chemical compounds. They are part of the foods and beverages we ingest, they are
present in medicines and other consumer products, and they are prevalent in the world around us. In this chapter, we will
focus on acids and bases and their chemistry.
•Acidic substances are usually identified by their sour taste. An acid is basically a molecule which can donate an H+ ion and
can remain energetically favourable after a loss of H+. Acids are known to turn blue litmus red.
•Bases, on the other hand, are characterized by a bitter taste and a slippery texture. A base that can be dissolved in water is
referred to as an alkali. When these substances chemically react with acids, they yield salts. Bases are known to turn red
litmus blue.
ACID DEFINITION CHEMISTRY
•The term acid and base have been defined in different ways, depending on the particular way of looking
at the properties of acidity and basicity. Arrhenius first defined acids as compounds which ionize to
produce hydrogen ions, and bases as compounds which ionize to produce hydroxide ions. According to
the Lowry-Bronsted definition, an acid is a proton donor and a base is a proton acceptor.
•According to the Lewis definition, acids are molecules or ions capable of coordinating with unshared
electron pairs, and bases are molecules or ions having unshared electron pairs available for sharing with
acids. To be acidic in the Lewis sense, a molecule must be electron deficient. This is the most general
acid base concept. All Lowery Bronstead acids are Lewis acids but, in addition, the Lewis definition
includes many other reagents such as boron trifluoride, aluminium chloride, etc.
THEORIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
THREE DIFFERENT THEORIES HAVE BEEN PUT FORTH IN ORDER
TO DEFINE ACIDS AND BASES. THESE THEORIES INCLUDE THE
ARRHENIUS THEORY, THE BRONSTED-LOWRY THEORY, AND
THE LEWIS THEORY OF ACIDS AND BASES. A BRIEF
DESCRIPTION OF EACH OF THESE THEORIES IS PROVIDED IN
THIS SUBSECTION. ACIDS AND BASES CAN BE DEFINED VIA
THREE DIFFERENT THEORIES.
• Arrhenius theory of acids and bases states that “an acid generates H+ ions
in a solution whereas a base produces an OH– ion in its solution”.
• The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines “an acid as a proton donor and a base
as a proton acceptor”.
• Finally, the Lewis definition of acids and bases describes “acids as electron-
pair acceptors and bases as electron-pair donors”.
pH of Acids and Bases
• In order to find the numeric value of the level of acidity or basicity of a substance, the pH scale
(wherein pH stands for ‘potential of hydrogen’) can be used. The pH scale is the most common
and trusted way to measure how acidic or basic a substance is. A pH scale measure can vary from
0 to 14, where 0 is the most acidic and 14 is the most basic a substance can be.
• Another way to check if a substance is acidic or basic is to use litmus paper. There are two types
of litmus paper available that can be used to identify acids and bases – red litmus paper and blue
litmus paper. Blue litmus paper turns red under acidic conditions and red litmus paper turns blue
under basic or alkaline conditions.
PROPERTIES OF ACIDS AND BASES
1. PROPERTIES OF ACIDS

• Acids are corrosive in nature.

• They are good conductors of electricity.
• Their pH values are always less than 7.
• When reacted with metals, these substances produce hydrogen gas.
• Acids are sour-tasting substances.
• Examples: Sulfuric acid [H2SO4], Hydrochloric acid [HCl], Acetic acid
[CH3COOH].
2. PROPERTIES OF BASES
SOME PROPERTIES, LIKE A BITTER TASTE, ARE OWNED BY ALL
BASES. THE BASES FEEL SLIPPERY, TOO. DREAM ON WHAT
SLIPPERY SOAP LOOKS LIKE. AND THIS IS A FOUNDATION.
FURTHERMORE, WHEN IMMERSED IN WATER, BASES CONDUCT
ELECTRICITY BECAUSE THEY CONSIST OF CHARGED PARTICLES IN
THE SOLUTION.

• They are found to have a soapy texture when touched.

• These substances release hydroxide ions (OH– ions) when dissolved in water.
• In their aqueous solutions, bases act as good conductors of electricity.
• The pH values corresponding to bases are always greater than 7.
• Bases are bitter-tasting substances which have the ability to turn red litmus paper blue.
• Examples: Sodium hydroxide [NaOH], milk of magnesia [Mg(OH)2], calcium hydroxide
[Ca(OH)2].
 3. NEUTRAL SUBSTANCES
THE NEUTRAL SUBSTANCE IS A SUBSTANCE WHICH HAS NO ACID OR BASE
PROPERTIES, HAS THE SAME AMOUNT OF HYDROGEN AND HYDROXYL
IONS, AND DOES NOT MODIFY THE COLOUR OF THE LITMUS SURFACE.

These substances do not display any acidic or basic characteristics.

Their pH values approximate to 7.

Neutral substances have no effect on red or blue litmus paper.

The pH of pure water is exactly 7.

• Examples: Water, Common salt (NaCl)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACID AND BASES
ARRHENIUS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES

• The Swedish scientist Svante August Arrhenius defined acids as substances

that increase the H+ ion concentration of water when dissolved in it.
• These protons go on to form hydronium ions (H3O+) by combining with
water molecules.
• Similarly, the Arrhenius definition of a base states that bases are the
substances that, when dissolved in water, increase the concentration of
OH– ions in it.
• One of the merits of this theory is that it successfully
explains the reaction between acids and bases that yield
salts and water.
• An important limitation of the Arrhenius definitions of
acids and bases is that it fails to explain how substances
lacking hydroxide ions form basic solutions when
dissolved in water, such as NO2– and F–.
BRONSTED LOWRY THEORY OF ACIDS AND
BASES

• The Bronsted-Lowry theory defines an acid as a donor of protons.

• A base is defined as a proton acceptor (or H+ ion acceptor) by this theory.
• Bronsted acids undergo dissociation to yield protons and therefore increase
the concentration of H+ ions in the solution.
• On the other hand, Bronsted bases accept protons from water (the solvent) to
yield hydroxide ions.
• An advantage of the Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and
bases is its ability to explain the acidic or basic nature of
ionic species.
• An important limitation of this theory is that it fails to explain
how compounds lacking hydrogen exhibit acidic properties,
such as BF3 and AlCl3.
LEWIS CONCEPT OF ACIDS AND BASES
• The Lewis definition of an acid states that it is a species that has a vacant orbital and
therefore, has the ability to accept an electron pair.
• A Lewis base is a species that holds a lone pair of electrons and can, therefore, act as an
electron-pair donor.
• This theory does not involve the hydrogen atom in its definition of acids and bases.
• Lewis acids are electrophilic in nature whereas Lewis Bases possess nucleophilic qualities.
• Examples of Lewis acids: Cu2+, BF3, and Fe3+. Examples of Lewis bases: F–, NH3, and
C2H4 (ethylene).
• A Lewis acid accepts an electron pair from a Lewis base, forming
a coordinate covalent bond in the process. The resulting
compound is referred to as a Lewis adduct.
• A notable advantage of this concept is that many compounds can
be defined as acids or bases by it. However, it offers little insight
into the strength of these acids and bases.
• One of the disadvantages of this theory is that it fails to explain
the acid-base reactions that do not involve the formation of a
coordinate covalent bond.
USES OF ACIDS AND BASES
1. Uses of Acids
Vinegar, a diluted solution of acetic acid, has various household applications. It is primarily
used as a food preservative.
Citric acid is an integral part of lemon juice and orange juice. It can also be used in the
preservation of food.
Sulfuric acid is widely used in batteries. The batteries used to start the engines of automobiles
commonly contain this acid.
The industrial production of explosives, dyes, paints, and fertilizers involves the use of sulfuric
acid and nitric acid.
• Phosphoric acid is a key ingredient in many soft drinks.
2. Uses of Bases
• The manufacturing of soap and paper involves the use of sodium hydroxide. NaOH is also
used in the manufacture of rayon.

• Ca(OH)2, also known as slaked lime or calcium hydroxide, is used to manufacture bleaching
powder.
• Dry mixes used in painting or decoration are made with the help of calcium hydroxide.
• Magnesium hydroxide, also known as milk of magnesia, is commonly used as a laxative. It
also reduces any excess acidity in the human stomach and is, therefore, used as an antacid.
• Ammonium hydroxide is a very important reagent used in laboratories.
• Any excess acidity in soils can be neutralized by employing slaked lime.