Endocrine System

Chemical Control
What are endocrine hormones?
1. Chemical signals 33% 33% 33%
from one cell to
remote target cells.
2. Chemicals for direct
cell-to-cell
communication.
3. Chemicals that cross
a gap between to
adjacent cells.
1 2 3
 Messenger Molecules

• Cells must communicate with one

another to coordinate cell processes
within tissues and to maintain
homeostasis.
• Cell-to-cell communication is carried out
via messenger molecules.
 Three types of
chemical signals
are used for cell-
to-cell
communication.
Four methods of cell-to-cell communication are found in
the human body, ranging from direct to remote
communication.
A muscle cell needs to tell a neighboring muscle cell
to contract. This will be accomplished by ___
communication:
25% 25% 25% 25%

1. Direct.
2. Synaptic.
3. Paracrine.
4. Endocrine.

1 2 3 4
 When blood sugar is high, body cells must be
stimulated to take up sugar. This is accomplished by
___ communication.
25% 25% 25% 25%

1. Direct.
2. Synaptic.
3. Paracrine.
4. Endocrine.

1 2 3 4
 Aspirin helps relieve headaches
because it:
50% 50%

1. Inhibits
prostaglandin
synthesis.
2. Stimulates
prostaglandin
synthesis.

1 2
 Endocrine hormones

• Produced by endocrine (“ductless”) glands and

secreted into the bloodstream.
• Endocrine hormones may affect a wide array of
target cells to produce multiple effects.
• Two types: peptides (small proteins) and
steroids (lipids).
Hormones and Receptors
 Peptide Hormones
• Peptide hormones do not enter the cell
directly. These hormones bind to
receptor proteins in the cell membrane.
• When the hormone binds with the
receptor protein, a secondary messenger
molecule initiates the cell response.
• Because peptide hormones are water
soluble, they often produce fast
responses.
 peptide or amino
acid-derived Hormone–receptor binding
2
hormone activates an enzyme that catalyzes
(first messenger) the synthesis of a second messenger,
such as cyclic AMP
1 The hormone binds to
a receptor on the plasma cyclic AMP-
membrane of a target cell synthesizing (cytoplasm)
enzyme
(extracellular
fluid) ATP

active
enzyme
receptor product
cyclic AMP
(second messenger) 4 The activated enzymes
catalyze specific reactions
plasma membrane

inactive reactant
enzyme
3 The second nuclear
messenger activates envelope
other enzymes (nucleus)
 Steroid Hormones
• Steroid hormones enter through the cell
membrane and bind to receptors inside
of the target cell.
• These hormones may directly stimulate
transcription of genes to make certain
proteins.
• Because steroids work by triggering gene
activity, the response is slower than
peptide hormones.
 steroid hormone (extracellular The hormone binds to a
2
fluid) receptor in the nucleus or to
a receptor in the cytoplasm 3 The hormone–receptor
that carries it into the nucleus complex binds to DNA and
causes RNA polymerase to
bind to a nearby promoter
1 A steroid hormone site for a specific gene
diffuses through the
plasma membrane

DNA
plasma hormone receptor
membrane
ribosome
RNA polymerase
5 The mRNA leaves the
nucleus, then attaches to a
ribosome and directs the 4 RNA polymerase catalyzes
synthesis of a specific protein mRNA the transcription of DNA into
product messenger RNA (mRNA)

new protein gene

nuclear
envelope
(cytoplasm) (nucleus)
If receptors for a hormone were blocked, the
effect would be the same as if:
25% 25% 25% 25%
1. More hormone was
added.
2. No hormone had
been released.
3. More receptors had
been added.
4. The receptors had
not been blocked.

1 2 3 4
 Your doctor injects a hormone as a treatment for a
condition, and says it won’t take effect for at least 24
hours. What kind of hormone was used?

33% 33% 33%

1. Peptide
2. Steroid
3. Amino acid derived

1 2 3
 W
O
R
K

T
• How do endocrine hormones “know” O
which cells are their target cells? G
E
T
H
E
R
Role of the Hypothalamus

• The thalamus receives sensory

information, relays some to the
hypothalamus.
• Hypothalamus monitors the body for
temperature, pH, other conditions.
• Hypothalamus signals pituitary gland if
conditions need to be corrected.
 Role of the Pituitary

• The pituitary is the “master gland” that signals other

glands to produce their hormones when needed.
• The anterior lobe of the pituitary receives signals from
the hypothalamus, and responds by sending out the
appropriate hormone to other endocrine glands.
• The posterior pituitary receives oxytocin or
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) from the hypothalamus,
relays them to the body as necessary.
 hypothalamus

1 Neurosecretory cells of
1 Neurosecretory cells the hypothalamus produce
of the hypothalamus oxytocin and ADH
produce releasing and
inhibiting hormones

2 Releasing or inhibiting hormones

(green circles) are secreted into
capillaries feeding the anterior lobe
of the pituitary

2 Oxytocin and ADH

(blue triangles) are
blood flow
secreted into the blood
pituitary via capillaries in the
(anterior lobe) posterior pituitary
endocrine
cell
capillary pituitary
bed (posterior lobe)

3 Endocrine cells of the capillary

anterior pituitary secrete bed
hormones (red squares)
in response to releasing
hormones; the pituitary
hormones enter the
bloodstream
blood
flow
 Pituitary Hormones
Pituitary Hormone Functions
Follicle-stimulating Stimulates egg maturation in the ovary and release of sex
hormone hormones.
Lutenizing hormone Stimulates maturation of egg and of the corpus luteum
surrounding the egg, which affects female sex hormones and the
menstrual cycle.
Thyroid-stimulating Stimulates the thyroid to release thyroxine.
hormone
Adrenocorticotropic Causes the adrenal gland to release cortisol.
hormone
Melanocyte-stimulating Stimulates synthesis of skin pigments.
hormone
Growth hormone Stimulates growth during infancy and puberty.

Antidiuretic hormone Signals the kidney to conserve more water.

Oxytocin Affects childbirth, lactation, and some behaviors.

 Endocrine Hormones
Gland Hormones Functions

Thyroid Thyroxine Regulates metabolism

Calcitonin Inhibits release of calcium from the bones

Parathyroids Parathyroid hormone Stimulates the release of calcium from the bones.

Islet cells (in Insulin Decreases blood sugar by promoting uptake of glucose by cells.
the pancreas)
Glucagon Increases blood sugar by stimulating breakdown of glycogen in the liver.

Testes Testosterone Regulates sperm cell production and secondary sex characteristics.

Ovaries Estrogen Stimulates egg maturation, controls secondary sex characteristics.

Progesterone Prepares the uterus to receive a fertilized egg.

Adrenal cortex Epinephrine Stimulates “fight or flight” response.

Adrenal Glucocorticoids Part of stress response, increase blood glucose levels and decrease
medulla immune response.

Aldosterone Regulates sodium content in the blood.

Testosterone (in both Adult body form (greater muscle mass), libido.
sexes)

Pineal gland Melatonin Sleep cycles, reproductive cycles in many mammals.

 W
• Use the table on the last slide to diagnose O
the following endocrine issues: R
K
• A patient who feels cold and listless all
the time. T
O
• A patient who is constantly keyed up G
and nervous. E
T
• An elderly patient who is having H
chronic trouble falling asleep at night. E
R
Homeostasis and Hormones

• Examples:
• Thyroid and temperature control
• Thyroid, Parathyroid, and calcium
• Pancreas and glucose control
 W
• Knowing the following: O
R
• The thyroid produces thyroxine, which K
increases metabolism.
T
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone is O
released by the pituitary. G
E
• Sketch a negative feedback loop that T
controls body temperature regulation. H
E
R
Temperature Control
 W
• Knowing the following: O
R
• Calcitonin from the thyroid inhibits K
calcium release from the bones.
T
• Parathyroid hormone stimulates O
release of calcium from the bones. G
E
• Sketch a negative feedback loop that T
controls blood calcium level. H
E
R
Blood Calcium
• Knowing that:
W
O
• Insulin from the pancreas lowers blood
R
glucose by stimulating body cells to take K
up glucose.
T
• Glucagon from the pancreas increases O
blood sugar by stimulating the liver to G
break down glycogen into glucose. E
T
• Sketch a negative feedback loop that H
controls blood sugar. E
R
Blood Sugar Control
 W
• Given this patient profile, can you make a O
diagnosis? R
K
• Age – 14
T
• Gender – Male O
G
• Exam: Normal weight, low blood E
pressure T
H
• Lab tests: High blood glucose, low E
levels of insulin. R
 W
O
• Now how about this patient? R
K
• Age – 40
T
• Gender – Male O
G
• Exam: Obese, high blood pressure E
T
• Lab tests: High blood glucose, normal H
levels of insulin. E
R
 Other hormone roles

• Controlling sleep cycles (melatonin)

• Controlling reproductive cycles
(melatonin, sex hormones)
• Growth (growth hormone)
• Responding to stress or emergencies
(epinephrine and other hormones)
Hormones Everywhere!

• Many other organs besides the endocrine

glands produce hormones.
• Kidneys produce several hormones that
regulate blood pressure, which is
essential for kidney function.
• The digestive system produces several
hormones that regulate appetite.
 The obese mouse on
the left does not
produce enough
leptin, a hormone
produced by fat
cells.

Low body fat stimulates leptin production, which stimulates

appetite. The mouse is obese because its low leptin levels
give it an enormous appetite. Leptin injections return the
mouse’s weight to normal. Humans sometimes have a leptin
issue, too, but the problem is a bad leptin receptor on body
cells. Alas, leptin injections won’t cure that.
 Finally…

• Summarize the roles of the pituitary and

other endocrine glands in maintaining
homeostasis in the human body.