METABOLISM

The concept of metabolism

• Metabolism = all the chemical reactions
taking place inside living organisms
• Metabolic reactions produce different life
processes, e.g.
– photosynthesis
– respiration
– movement
– growth
– reproduction
 Types of metabolism

• Catabolism:
– break down complex organic
molecules into simpler molecules
– e.g. respiration: produces energy
 Types of metabolism
• Anabolism:
– Build up complex organic molecules from
simple molecules
– e.g. Photosynthesis: requires energy
ENZYMES
Types of Enzymes
Extracellular Enzymes
- leave the cell & exert actions
outside the cell
Intracelluar Enzymes
- exert action inside the cell
 Control of metabolism
enzyme
A+B C
• Metabolic reactions can be controlled and
speeded up by enzymes
– metabolic reactions would be too slow to
occur if no enzymes are present!
 Nature and properties
of enzymes
Biological-found
Biological Catalyst
within living organisms
Catalyst-substance which can speed up
a chemical reaction
 Enzymes work on molecules called Prote
in

substrates
 Substrates are in turn converted to
products
 Nature and properties
of enzymes
 Proteins in nature
 Specific in action
– one kind of enzyme will catalyse only one kind
of chemical reaction
 Not destroyed by the reaction
 Required in small amounts
 Nature and properties
of enzymes
 Inhibited by poisons – e.g. cyanide and
arsenic
 Work best at an optimum temperature and
pH
 Denatured at high temperatures
 Catalyse reversible reaction in both
directions
 Mechanism of
enzyme action
• Each enzyme has an active site
 Mechanism of
enzyme action
• Active site : the place where
substrate binds with the enzyme
• Each active site can only allow a
specific substrate to fit in
 Mechanism of enzyme action
• The enzyme and substrate molecules combine
to form a temporary structure called enzyme-
substrate complex
 Action of enzyme
(Anabolic reaction)
enzyme-substrate enzyme-product
complex complex

product
substrate

enzyme enzyme
 Action of enzyme
(catabolic reaction)
enzyme-product enzyme-substrate
complex complex

products substrate

enzyme enzyme
 Mechanism of enzyme action
• The product molecules are then formed
and they escape from the active site

• The active site is free to attach to other

substrate molecules again ( i.e. it can
be reused )
 This hypothesis to explain the
specificity of enzyme action is called
Lock and key hypothesis
Lock and key model
Lock and key hypothesis
 Factors affecting
enzyme activity
 Catalyse reversible reaction in both
directions
 Enzymatic activity is affected by
temperature and pH
– high temperature and extreme pH can
denature enzymes

pH
 Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity
• Low temperature : low kinetic energy possessed
by the substrate and enzyme molecules

The enzyme becomes inactive

Lower reaction rate (and enzyme

activity)
Effect of temperature on enzyme
activity
 Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity

• Higher temperature : more kinetic

energy possessed by the substrate
and enzyme molecules
Higher reaction rate (and enzyme
activity)
 Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity
• The temperature which allows the
highest enzyme activity is called the
optimum temperature
 Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity
• At temperature higher than the optimum
temperature, the shape of the active site is
changed
The enzyme is said to be denatured
substrate can no longer bind to the
active site of the enzyme
Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity
 Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity

• Enzymes become inactive but not

denatured at low temperatures
They can regain catalytic function
when the temperature increases
 Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity
• Denaturation is usually a permanent
process
When an enzyme is denatured, its
catalytic function is lost permanently, and
cannot be restored ( never become active
again ) even it is put in lower temperature
Effect of temperature on
enzyme activity
• Different enzymes may have different
optimum temperatures
• The optimum temperature of many
enzymes in human body is not 37oC, even
though this is our body temperature!
– Our body temperature can provide a
better environment for all the enzymes in
our bodies to work
 Effect of pH on
enzyme activity
Too •extreme
• pH Optimum
of pHhigher
pH
medium : thedestroy
can pHorvalue atthan
the
lower which the enzyme
enzymes
optimum pH
canhas the highest
inactivate the activity
enzyme
 Different enzymes has
different optimum pH
Enzyme 2 Enzyme 1
Enzyme 3
Rate of reaction

pH
 Factors affecting
Enzyme Activity & Rate
of Enzymatic Reactions
 Factors affecting enzyme activities :
– Temperature
– pH

 Factors affecting rate of enzymatic reactions :

– Temperature
– pH
– Substrate concentration
– Enzyme concentration
Factors affecting enzyme action :
Substrate concentration
 Substrate Concentration and Reaction Rate
• The rate of reaction increases as substrate concentration
increases (at constant enzyme concentration)
• Maximum activity occurs when the enzyme is saturated (when all
enzymes are binding substrate)
• The relationship between reaction rate and substrate
concentration is exponential, and levels off when the enzyme is
saturated
 Enzyme Concentration and Reaction Rate
• The rate of reaction increases as enzyme concentration
increases (at constant substrate concentration)
• At higher enzyme concentrations, more enzymes are
available to catalyze the reaction (more reactions at once)
• There is a linear relationship between reaction rate and
enzyme concentration (at constant substrate concentration)
 Sucrase Activity – Question

Sucrase has an optimum temperature of

37°C and an optimum pH of 6.2. Determine
the effect of the following on its rate of
reaction
(1) no change (2) increase (3) decrease
A. Increasing the concentration of sucrose
B. Changing the pH to 4
C. Running the reaction at 70°C
 Solution
Sucrase has an optimum temperature of 37°C and
an optimum pH of 6.2. Determine the effect of the
following on its rate of reaction
(1) no change (2) increase (3) decrease
A. 2, 1 Increasing the concentration of sucrose
B. 3 Changing the pH to 4
C. 3 Running the reaction at 70°C
Enzymes in Digestion
Enzymes involved in Digestion
 Detergents

Biological Washing Powder

 Detergents
• Traditional use of enzymes in laundry detergents
involved those that degrade proteins causing
stains, such as those found in grass stains, red
wine and soil.
• Lipases are another useful class of enzymes that
can be used to dissolve fat stains and clean
grease traps or other fat-based cleaning
applications.
 Detergents
• A popular area of research is the investigation
of enzymes that can tolerate, or even have
higher activities, in hot and cold temperatures.
• Enzymes that are potentially thermotolerant
and cryotolerant are especially desirable for
potential use to improving laundry processes
in hot water cycles and/or at low temperatures
for washing colours and darks. 
Food Industry
 Food Industry
• Many enzymes are used in the preparation of
many different foods.
• For example, amylases which are present in
yeast are used in brewing and baking to
convert sugars into alcohol and carbon
dioxide.
• Proteases are used in tenderising meat.
Rennin is essential to create cheese.
 Food Industry
• Invertase is used to make some soft centred
sweets such as thin chocolate covered mints. 
• A thick, almost solid, paste of sucrose and a little
water containing invertase is covered in
chocolate and left at room temperature for a few
days. 
• The sucrose is converted into a mixture of glucose
and fructose which creates a soft centre to the
chocolate.
Industrial Processes
Detection of the presence of
Catalase in Plant and Animal
Tissues
liver potato meat apple boiled liver growing splint

A B C D E

3
5cm of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution

What is the purpose of setting up tube E ?

Ans: To see whether the catalase in the tissue can still
catalyse the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
after boiling.
liver potato meat apple boiled liver growing splint

A B C D E

3
5cm of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution

What gas is evolved when fresh tissues are added

into the hydrogen peroxide solution ?
Ans: Oxygen.
liver potato meat apple boiled liver growing splint

A B C D E

3
5cm of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution

Which tissue has the highest catalase activity ?

Ans: Fresh liver tissue.
liver potato meat apple boiled liver growing splint

A B C D E

3
5cm of 3% hydrogen peroxide solution

What conclusion can you draw from the results of

this experiment ?
Ans: Catalase is produced by fresh tissues only.
Boiling kills the cells and destroys the enzyme.
Effect of Temperature on
the action of Amylase
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2

ice bath water bath

at 2℃ at 37 ℃ water at
100 ℃
amylase starch water bath at
solution solution room temperature thermometer

amylase and
starch solution
iodine
solution
spotting tile

Why is it necessary to equilibrate the pair of test tubes

under each condition for 5 minutes before mixing ?
Ans: To ensure the pair of test tubes are in the same
temperature.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2

ice bath water bath

at 2 ℃ at 37 ℃ water at
100 ℃
amylase starch water bath at
solution solution room temperature thermometer

amylase and
starch solution
iodine
solution
spotting tile

What is the factor affecting the action of amylase in

converting starch into sugar ?
Ans: Temperature.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2

ice bath water bath

at 2 ℃ at 37 ℃ water at
100 ℃
amylase starch water bath at
solution solution room temperature thermometer

amylase and
starch solution
iodine
solution
spotting tile

At which temperature does all the starch in the tube

disappear first ?
Ans: 37 ℃.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2

ice bath water bath

at 2 ℃ at 37 ℃ water at
100 ℃
amylase starch water bath at
solution solution room temperature thermometer

amylase and
starch solution
iodine
solution
spotting tile

How does the activity of amylase change with

temperature ?
Ans: At room temperature, amylase works but not as
well as that at 37 ℃. It does not work at 2℃ and
100℃.
A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2 D1 D2

ice bath water bath

at 2 ℃ at 37 ℃ water at
100 ℃
amylase starch water bath at
solution solution room temperature thermometer

amylase and
starch solution
iodine
solution
spotting tile

At which temperature does amylase work best ?

Ans: 37 ℃.
~ End ~