Skeletal System

 Support to which soft tissues attach

 Protection
 Hemopoiesis - blood cell formation
 Mineral Storage - Ca,P,Mg,Na
 Movement - muscles use bones as levers
 Long bones - arms,
legs, fingers, toes
 Short bones -wrist,
ankles
 Flat bones -
ribs, breast,
scapulas and
cranial bones
 Irregular bones
- vertebrae,
some facial
bones, hip
 Sutural (Wormian) bones -
between cranial bones in small
clusters
 Sesamoid bones -
patella; a special type of
short bone in joint
capsules and tendons
that reduce friction; often
found in the wrist
 Long Bone Structure
 Diaphysis - the shaft; compact bone
 Epiphysis - ends of bone; spongy
 Medullary (marrow) cavity - contains
yellow marrow
 Periosteum (on the outside) and
endosteum (on the inside)
 Sharpey’s fibers - connect bone to
periosteum
 Articular cartilage
Structure of other Bones
 Outer layer of
compact bone with
spongy bone in the
interior
 Matrix - maintained by osteocytes
 Collagen - organic; tensile strength
 Calcium salts - inorganic;
compressional strength
 Osteon (Haversian System) -
osteoblasts, lacunae, canaliculi,
osteocytes, osteoclasts, lamella -
spongy(cancellous) and compact bone
Normal spongy bone on the left; osteoporotic
bone on the right
 When bone formation begins,
osteoblasts supervise Ca salt
deposition on all sides, thus walling
themselves in lacunae
 To prevent complete isolation, the
osteoblasts send out little extensions
of their plasma membrane
 As the Ca salts continue to be
deposited, these membrane
extensions keep microscopic
channels - canaliculi - open for
movement of intercellular fluid
 When bone formation is complete,
osteoblasts withdraw their
membrane extensions but the bony
canaliculi remain
 Osteoblasts (bone-forming cells)
become osteocytes (bone
maintenance cells)
 This network has final connections
with the Haversian canal which
contains blood vessels and nerves
essential for osteocyte metabolism
Osteocytes are arranged in 2 types of layers
(lamellae)
 1. Arranged as
scaffolding (latticework)
of needle shaped
trabeculae (spicules)
with red marrow in the
spaces; provides
“lightness”
 2. Arranged
circularly to
provide strength
in compact
bone
 Red bone marrow - in bodies of
vertebrae, cranial bones, sternum, ribs,
proximal epiphyses of humerus and
femur in adults (in all epiphyses in
children)
 Red marrow functions - produce
RBCs, granular leucocytes (WBCs),
thrombocytes (platelets), phagocytosis
of old RBCs and foreign particles
 Yellow marrow - adipose cells in
marrow (medullary) cavities
 Bone Formation - Ossification
begins about the 8th week
 Intramembranous - forms flat bones, fontanels,
trabecula form latticework
 Endochondral (intracartilaginous) - secondary
ossification occurs after birth, epiphyseal plates,
epiphyseal line (remnant of the plate found in adults)
Intramembranous Ossification
 Little pieces of fibrous membrane are
rough patterns of the bone that will be
 Mesenchymal cells, in the center of
each membrane, become osteoblasts
and produce a matrix
 From the primary center of ossification,
bone formation advances towards the
edge of the membrane
 The membrane continues to grow and
ossification isn’t complete when the
baby is born. This is most noticeable at
the corners of adjacent membranes and
accounts for the fontanels - the soft
spots on the infant’s head.
 When osteoblasts are completely
surrounded by calcified matrix,
trabeculae (bone spikes) form, fuse,
and form a latticework of spongy bone.
 Thesurface layer of spongy
bone is reconstructed into
compact bone
 Blood vessels penetrate the
perichondrium of the hyaline
cartilage model along the shaft and
cause cells to become osteoblasts
 Osteoblasts form a collar of
compact bone
 In the center of the diaphysis,
chondrocytes hypertrophy and
die, leaving large cavities which
are invaded by blood vessels,
nerve fibers, osteoblasts and
osteoclasts.
 Osteoblasts secrete a matrix in
the primary center of
ossification
 As the primary ossification
center spreads proximally and
distally, osteoclasts break down
the new spongy bone and form
the medullary cavity.
 Throughout fetal life, hyaline
cartilage models continue to
elongate as ossification
“chases” it
 After birth secondary ossification centers
develop in both epiphyses.
 Bone formation spreads from the centers of
ossification in the diaphysis and epiphyses
until only 2 thin strips of cartilage - the
epiphyseal plates - remain until bone growth
is completed and these cartilages are
transformed into bone.
 Hyaline cartilage remains on the epiphyseal
surface as articular cartilage.
How will
I get taller?
Growth in Length
 New cartilage cells are produced on the
epiphysis side of the epiphyseal plate
 Cartilage cells hypertrophy and die on
the diaphysis side of the epiphyseal
plate
 Osteoblasts move into spaces left by
the cartilage cell destruction and build
bone
 Growth continues until 17-24 years of
age when the plates close
 Growth hormone & somatomedins
increase growth
 Sex hormones - increase growth
 Calcitonin - reduces osteoclast
activity
 PTH - antagonistic to calcitonin
 Thyroid hormones - modulate GH
to maintain proper proportions
Growth of Bones in
Circumference
 Periosteum consists of an outer fibrous
layer and an inner osteogenic layer
 Osteogenic cells in the inner layer
multiply by mitosis
 Deep cells become osteoblasts, lay
down bone, and then become
osteocytes
 Osteoclasts dissolve the bone adjacent
to the marrow cavity to prevent the
bone from getting too heavy.
 Coverings and Blood Supply
 Articular cartilage - hyaline; reduces friction and
erosion in joints
 Periosteum
 Volkmann’s (penetrating) and Haversian
(central) canals
 Primary curves - retain fetal anterior concavity
 Thoracic curve
 Sacral curve
 Secondary curves
 Cervical curve
 Lumbar curve
 Purposes of Curvatures
 Increase strength
 Absorb shock when walking
 Maintain balance
 Protect column from fracture
 Scoliosis - lateral
bending
 Lordosis -
exaggerated lumbar
curve
 Kyphosis -
exaggerated
thoracic curve;
hunchback
The same woman before and after osteoporosis. Note
the kyphosis.
 Skull
 Vertebral column
 Thoracic cage
 Appendicular Skeleton
 Upper limb and pectoral girdle
 Lower limb and pelvic girdle (ilium,
ischium, pubis)