SEMI – SYNTHETIC

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Textile knowledge
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 Textile
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 Semi-Synthetic Fiber.

Semi – synthetic fiber is cellulose that has been regenerated. This blend

of natural and synthetic fibers includes a higher proportion of synthetic fibers than natural fibers.
Semi-Synthetic Fiber Types :

⬤ Cellulite-derived semi-synthetic fiber

⬤ Protein-derived semi-synthetic fiber

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 Cellulite-derived semi-synthetic fiber
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 a. Viscose Rayon

Viscose rayon is a regenerated cellulose fiber with the

same structure as other cellulose fibers, but with a
reduced degree of polymerization due to polymer
chain degradation during the manufacturing process.
C. F. Cross and E. J. Bevan invented viscose rayon
manufacturing in 1891. Courtaulds Ltd. produced the
first viscose rayon, which quickly spread throughout
the world. However, some rayon-producing facilities
have recently closed their doors.ants
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 Ways of making

Pulp-wood Aging Xanthanes or

Immersion process
production sulfates

Cast for 4-5 Mixing with

days with a Sodium
Purification Wet spinning
temperature of Hydroxide
10-18°c solution
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 Rayon Viscose Properties
a. strength and stretch
The strength of the viscose rayon fiber is about 2g/denier in the
dry state and the wet strength is about 1.4 g/denier. The creep
is about 15% in the dry state and 25% in the dry state
e. Electrical properties
In the dry state, viscose rayon is a good electrical
insulator but the moisture absorbed by the rayon will
reduce its insulation.

b. Moisture Regain under standard f. Ray

In irradiation its strength decreases. Less strength loss
conditions is 12–13%.
compared to silk but higher than acetate.

c. The elasticity is bad.

g. hot
d. The specific gravity of viscose rayon is 1.52. Viscose rayon is resistant to ironing but prolonged
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heating causes the rayon to turn yellow.

 h. Chemical Properties
Viscose rayon is more easily damaged by acids than cotton, especially in hot conditions. Working with cold dilute
acid for a short time usually has no effect but at high temperatures will damage the viscose rayon fiber. Solvent-
resistant viscose rayon for dry cleaning.

i. Biological Properties
The fungus will cause the viscose rayon to lose its strength and color. Usually the fungus grows first on the
starch attached to the thread. Once the starch has been removed the chances of being attacked by fungus are
reduced.

j. Morphological Properties
The elongated shape of the viscose fiber is like
a ribbed cylinder and has a serrated cross
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section
 Use of Rayon Viscose

Viscose rayon is used for clothing textiles and household textiles such
as:
curtain fabrics, chair covers, tablecloths, bed sheets, lace fabrics, fine
fabrics for clothing and underwear. Viscose fabric is good for lining
because it is friction-resistant, shiny and slippery. A mixture of viscose
rayon and polyester is widely used as a clothing material.
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 Special Types of Viscose Rayon

1. Celta 5. Selofan
2. Bubblefil
6. Corval
3. Rayon Viscose accustomed
- Rayolanda 7. Topel
- Cisalpha and Lacisiana

4. Lanusa 8. Avril
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 b. Cuprammonium rayon
Cupramonium rayon was discovered by Schweizer in 1857 in Switzerland. Before it was
discovered how to spin yarn from a solution of cellulose in cupramonium, this solution had
been widely used for textile refinement. Some of these fibers are known as Bemberg,
Bemsilkie, Cupresa, and Cuprama. Although the production is growing rapidly, compared to
viscose rayon or acetate rayon the production is small. Compared to other regenerated
cellulose fibers, cupramonium rayon can be made very fine filaments.
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 1. Manufacture of Cupramonium Rayon
Fiber
The main raw material used is cotton linter, although purified wood pulp is sometimes used so that it has a
high cellulose content.
The manufacturing process is by means of a cotton fiber cooked in a peat moss at 150 ° C with a dilute
solution of sodium hydroxide, then bleached with sodium hypochlorite.
The purified cellulose is mixed with the necessary ammonia, cuprous sulfate and sodium hydroxide, then
stirred until it becomes a light blue solution.
● The solution is diluted to contain 910llulose, removed from the air and filtered. Cuprammonium
solution can be directly centrifuged or centrifuged after long storage, without damaging the polymer,
so there is no need to harden like viscose rayon.
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 Properties of Cuprammoniun Rayon
Since cupramonion rayon is regenerated cellulose, it is in many ways
similar to viscose rayon. The main differences are; the filaments are very
fine, averaging 1.2 denier/filament. For special purposes it can be made up
to 0.4 denier/filament. The dry strength is 2.3 g/denier and the wet
strength is 1.2 g/denier. 15% dry creep and 25% wet creep. Moisture
content 11%. Cupramonium rayon is flammable at 180°C damaged, and
its strength is reduced by sunlight. In combustion will remove very little
copper ash. Its elongated shape is cylindrical with a blind cross section,
like the following picture:

Its chemical properties are similar to those of viscose

rayon. Damaged by strong alkali, but resistant to weak
alkali. Also not resistant to oxidizing agents. Bleaching
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can be carried out with a solution of hypochlorite in a

slightly alkaline condition or with hydrogen peroxide.
 Use of cupramonium rayon
Cupramonium rayon is widely used for women’s clothing,
women’s socks and underwear. Mostly for good quality fabrics.
The fineness of the filament provides good limp and drape
properties. Women’s fabrics made with this thread are often
referred to by the name Bemberg Rayon.
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 c. Rayon Acetate
Cellulose acetate was prepared by Schutzenberger in 1869 by heating nonhydrate cellulose and acetate
in a sealed tube. In 1891 Cross and Bevan found that the manufacture of cellulose acetate can be
carried out in ordinary atmosphere if there is a dehydration catalyst, namely sulfuric acid or zinc
chloride. In this way, cellulose triacetate is produced which is soluble in chloroform. Experiments
continued until 1919 by the Celanes Corporation and traded under the name Arnel.
This fiber is soluble in acetone solution, but if the cellulose is directly acetylated to a level of 2 acetate
the result is insoluble in acetone. At first, cellulose acetate was used as a covering for airplane wings
and was widely used during the war in 1914-1918, so it was necessary to build a factory in Spondon,
England. With the end of the war, production became redundant. In 1912 from the results of research
by Dr. Henry Dreyfus proposed how to spin cellulose acetate yarn, and the resulting fiber was named
Celanese.
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 1). Acetate fiber ( Secondary )
a). How to make Acetate Fiber

● Purification
Cotton linters are cooked in a kier under pressure for 4– 10 hours in a solution of sodium
carbonate, sodium hydroxide or a mixture of both. Then rinsed, washed and bleached with
sodium hypochlorite washed and dried.
● Preliminary work
The purified cotton is soaked in glacial acetic acid to make it reactive and easily acetylated.
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 ● Acetylation
After the preliminary work, the cotton is mixed with a mixture of glacial acetic acid and acetic anhydride in a
closed container equipped with a powerful stirrer, so that a complete mixture is obtained, but no reaction. Then, a
mixture of 1 part of sulfuric acid and 8 parts of glacial acetic acid was added to the mixture. The reaction is an
exothermic reaction so the temperature must be kept low, so that there is no degradation of the cellulose chain. At
the start the reaction was kept at 20 ° C and at the end of the reaction the temperature was kept at 25-30 ° C. The
reaction lasts about 8 hours. The product of this acetylation is called primary acetate.
● Hydrolysis
To convert primary acetate which is soluble in chloroform to secondary acetate which is soluble in acetone, the
primary acetate together with excess acetic acid and acetic anhydride is added to water to form a 95% acetic acid
solution, and left for about 20 hours at higher temperature so that hydrolysis occurs until the acetyl content is as
desired. Then the entire mixture is poured into excess water, so that the acid solution becomes dilute and the
cellulose acetate will precipitate. This precipitate is secondary acetate. The acetic acid is then recovered from the
solution. Secondary acetate is washed, squeezed and dried at low temperature.
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 ● Spinning
Secondary acetate is dissolved with acetone about three times the weight of acetate in a
closed container equipped with a strong stirrer. Dissolution runs for 24 hours. Spinning is
done by dry spinning. The filament is coiled while being twisted and pulled a little
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 b). Properties of Acetate Fiber ( Secondary )
Strength and stretch
Rayon acetate strength is approx. 1.4
g/denier and elongation is approx.
25%. In the wet state the strength is
0.9 g/denier with an elongation of
35%. Stretch elasticity is only up to
5%, more than that will not return to
its original length.
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Hot
Melting point 230°C. In very hot
ironing it will melt. Rayon
acetate is flammable but because
at the same time the fibers melt,
the flame spreads slowly.
However, it is almost as
dangerous for clothing as viscose
rayon or cotton.
Luster
Usually very shiny, but the luster
can be reduced in the presence of
titanium oxide. The luster will
decrease after soaking in boiling
water, but will return again after
ironing.
 Moisture regain Specific gravity Handle
Moisture regain 6,5%. The specific gravity is 1.32 The cellulose acetate handle is
soft, and the fabric has good
hanging properties.

Electrical properties Biological properties Ray

Is a good electrical insulator and The fiber is resistant to insects In irradiation there will be a
can generate a static electric and fungi. decline in strength, although not
charge. so much.
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 Chemical Properties

Cold weak acids have no effect on cellulose acetate, but concentrated

acids such as cold formic and acetic acid damage the fiber. Alkali will
saponify acetate fibers, ie remove acetate groups into hydroxyl but Morphological Properties
dilute alkali to pH 9.5 has no effect. Cellulose acetate is soluble in some
organic solvents such as acetone, methyl ethyl ketone, methyl acetate, The elongated shape is cylindrical with few
ethyl lactate and dioxane and bubbles in other organic solvents such lines and the cross section is curved like a
as chloroform, methylene chloride, ethylene chloride and cellosolve. clover leaf.
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 c). Dyeing ( Secondary )
Dyeing rayon acetate fiber is difficult because:

● HampirAlmost all the hydroxyl

● Rayon acetate will be saponified by
groups have been esterified, so
sodium hydroxide. Dyeing is generally
they have no affinity for dyes
done using dispersion dyes. Staining is
and do not absorb much water.
also done by immersing the solution,
which is mixing colored pigments in a
solution of cellulose acetate when
● Rayon acetate is sensitive to
spinning. Alkaline dyes can also be used
boiling, so dyeing should be
for dyeing, but they are fast, poor in
carried out at a temperature not
color.
exceeding 85°C.
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 Use of Acetate fiber ( Secondary )

Because of its soft and warm handle, rayon acetate is widely used
for women’s clothing. Rayon acetate is also used for household
textiles, for fabric hardening coatings, such as shirt necks, for
electrical insulation and for filters in cigarettes.
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 2). Alon or Tohalon
Alon or Tohalon is a cellulose fiber made by Toyo Rayon Ltd. Tokyo,
Japan. Alon is made by acetylation of viscose rayon fiber, which is
acetylation that is carried out after spinning.
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 How to make the fiber
The principle of its manufacture is as follows:
First, viscose rayon staples are made which have high strength in both dry and wet conditions. Rayon
is then immersed in a 15% sodium acetate solution in water at room temperature, then squeezed to
contain 100% solution and partially dried to contain 60% solution. The fibers are carried by a carrier
tube of wire mesh to a container containing acetic acid vapor at 110° C. And then brought to an
acetylation chamber containing acetic anhydride vapor at 130° C. The fiber passes through the acetic
anhydride container for several minutes and at that time acetic acid is formed continuously so that the
mixture of acetic acid and acid anhydride vapor flows out continuously and is replaced by acetic
anhydride vapor. Then the fibers are washed with water, oiled and dried in air at a temperature of 50-
70°C. This way the frizz on the viscose rayon won’t go away. The advantage of this method is that the
recovery of acetic acid and converting it to acetic anhydride is carried out without much loss. In
addition, acetylation is carried out without changing the shape of the fiber.
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 Properties of Alon or Tohalon Fiber

Strength and stretch Moisture regain Specific gravity

The fiber strength of 2.8 g/denier is Moisture regain Alon 5%, Alon specific gravity 1.34.
approximately twice the strength of secondary acetate fiber is normal
secondary acetate. The wet strength is 2.2 has a moisture regain of 6.5%.
g/denier. Mulch 23%. Withdrawals of up
to 5% can come back fine but can’t if it’s
any longer.

Cross section Chemical properties

Ironing The cross section of the alon is
stronger than ordinary acetate Its chemical properties are
Alon is more heat resistant than almost the same as ordinary
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and the indentations are not so

secondary acetate. Alon turns yellow much. acetate.
at 200°C.
 Use of Alon or Tohalon Fiber

Alon cloth is used for children’s clothing and can

also be used for materials that usually use
triacetate fibers.
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 d. Triacetate Rayon
The first cellulose acetate made was cellulose triacetate, but because the solvent was not safe, it was not produced on a
large scale. At that time threads of cellulose triacetate were spun from its solution in chloroform which is a toxic
substance. Much later this cellulose was developed on a large scale under the trade name Tricel by Nritish Gelanes Ltd.,
in England. The development of this fiber is due to:

- The solvent for cellulose triacetate that can be used easily and safely, namely methylene dichloride, has been available in
large quantities and cheaply since 1930.

- Developments in artificial fibers such as nylon, polyester and polyacrylate have shown that hydrophobic fibers can be
used, and many things that can be done with hydrophobic fibers cannot be done with secondary acetate, viscose rayon
and natural fibers.
The difference in chemical structure between triacetate and secondary acetate is that in triacetate the three hydroxyl
groups of each remaining glucose in the cellulose chain are all acetylated, while in secondary acetate the acetyl group
has been hydrolyzed from 3 to 2,3.
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 1. Manufacturer
The basic ingredients are cotton linters or wood pulp containing pure cellulose. At first cellulose is
treated with acetic acid, then acetylation can be carried out in three ways, namely:

● Non-solvent method
Cellulose that has been activated by acetic acid is diesterified with acetic anhydride and a non-solvent
such as bezene. The non-solvent used should have a slight buoyancy to the esterified cellulose. An acid
catalyst is added, such as sulfuric acid, toluene sulfonic acid, or perchloric acid, and then this acid
catalyst must be removed by heating in a non-solvent to purify the finally dried cellulose triacetate.
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 ● Solvent way
Cellulose that has been activated with acetic anhydride and acetic acid uses a sulfuric acid catalyst. As
a substitute for acetic acid, methylene chloride can be used. Then a short hydrolysis was carried out to
remove the combined sulfate ester groups, because if these groups were still present the result would
be unstable. The cellulose is then deposited in water, washed and dried. The cellulose triacetate
granules are dissolved in methylene chloride containing a small amount of alcohol to make a 20%
solution. Spinning is done in a dry way and immediately rolled. If the staple is made, it is curled first
and then cut into the desired length.

● Wet spinning
Cellulose triacetate can also be spun by wet spinning. This is done by being dissolved in glacial acetic
acid and then sprayed into water with a dilute acetic acid solution and spun by wet spinning. Its
strength is higher than that of dry-spun fibers. However this wet spinning is now deprecated, and
more often used dry spinning.
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 2. Nature,
Strength and stretch
Strength in the dry state is 1.2 g/denier
and in the wet state is 0.8 g/dernier.
Dry creep 20–28% and wet creep 35–
40%.
Morphology
Its morphology is almost the
same as that of secondary
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Specific gravity
● Its specific gravity is 1.32.
Moisture regain
Moisture regain triacetate 4.5%. When heated at
a temperature of 195°C or 130°C with steam,
there will be a rearrangement of the molecules so
that the crystallinity is better and the moisture
regain drops to 2.5-3.0%.
Melting point
The melting point is 290–300°C
higher than that of ordinary acetate.
In ironing both will soften and stick,
but still better than regular acetate
fibers.
Flame
The fabric is flammable and
ignites when the fabric has an
open structure.
 Ray
Its light resistance is the same as
that of secondary acetate.
Biology Electricity
Its electrical insulating properties are
The fiber is resistant to attack by
much greater than that of secondary
bacteria, fungi and insects.
acetate.

Handle
Heat-set fiber grip is stiffer than
secondary acetate.

Chemical Properties
Triacetate is resistant to boiling water. Resistant to dilute alkali but will be hydrolyzed by strong alkali. Resistant to dilute acids
but will be damaged by strong concentrated acids. Resistant to commercial bleaching with peroxide, peracetic acid, chlorite or
hypochlorite. Soluble in methylene dichloride, chloroform, formic acid, glacial acetic acid and slowly soluble in dioxane and
cresol. Triacetate will swell and is slightly soluble in acetone, and bubbling in ethylene chloride and trichloroethylene, but is not
affected by spirit, benzene, toluene, carbon tetrachloride, perchlorethylene, and most organic solvents. In general, triacetate is
more resistant to chemicals than with secondary acetate.
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 3. Dyeing
Basically the triacetate immersion method is the same as secondary acetate, but requires a higher
temperature, that is, until it boils. Triacetate is usually dyed with a dispersion dye.

4. Surface Soaping
In order for the triacetate to have good affinity with the direct dye without losing too much weight, the
saponification must be maintained only on the surface. For this reason, saponification is carried out with a
strong saponifying agent in a short time. This method is called “S” refinement and provides the following
advantages:
• Improve anti-static properties, because the surface that has been soaped will absorb more moisture thereby
reducing the tendency of static electricity to occur.
• Reduce the occurrence of gloss in ironing.
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• Better grip.
• Better color fastness to both wet rubbing and dry rubbing.
 5. Heat–Set
When triacetate is heated to a temperature of 170°C or more, the molecules will rearrange into a denser
group and have greater crystallinity. The moisture regain was lower from 4.5 to 2.5%, the affinity for
the dye was reduced and the fastness of the previously added dye was better. Folds that have previously
been given or done together “heat-set” become fixed. Its dimensional stability as well as its constant
foldability are good properties of triacetate. Heat-set can be carried out by dry heating at 170° - 220°C
or by steam heating at 110 – 130°C.

5. Usage
Triacetate is used for women’s clothing and clothing that requires a fixed crease.
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 e. Polisonic
Polynosic fiber is a fiber that is made better than viscose rayon by taking into account the shortcomings of viscose
rayon. Disadvantages of viscose rayon are mainly low wet strength, high elongation, poor elasticity, unstable
dimensions and for some purposes too soft. Many attempts were made but the best viscose rayon still did not
match cotton. The ugliness is caused by:
- Degree of polymerization of rayon 250 – 270 while cotton 2,000 – 10,000
- Cotton has a microfibril structure.
In order to get better properties, it is attempted to have a higher polymerization of rayon by reducing its
chemical processing so that it still has a polymerization of 500–700. In addition, to obtain the microfibril
structure, viscose compaction was carried out slowly and withdrawal was carried out before the xanthate was
converted back into cellulose. The manufacture of polynosic was invented by S. Tachikawa of Japan in 1951.
Polynosic was made in Japan under the name Toramomen, in Europe it was produced under the name Z 54 and
in America under the name Zantrel.
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 1. Zantrel, Toramomen
a). Making Polynosic by Tachikawa
The main differences between the manufacture of polynosic and viscose rayon are:
• Aging of alkaline cellulose is removed
• Cellulose xanthate is dissolved in water instead of dilute alkali
• The curing of the cellulose xanthate solution is removed
• Coagulation solutions contain only low concentrations of acid with little or no salt.
With the removal of aging and curing the degree of polymerization is higher. A more dilute coagulation
solution causes slower regeneration of cellulose, thus allowing a longer pull followed by orientation of the
fiber molecules before complete regeneration. The pulling must be done in stages, the first is pulled up to
100%, the second is 150%, the third and fourth is 200% so that the final fiber length is three times the
original length. Towing is accomplished by passing the filament through two rollers, one of which has a
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circumference of four stages. Because the withdrawal is carried out in stages, it provides a better degree of
orientation compared to pulling all at once.
 b). Nature
Polynosic properties have a higher degree of
polymerization of microfibril structure fibers that d). Use
are not found in viscose rayon. The fiber strength
is higher, the elongation is lower, the wet-to-dry Polynosic is made in the form of staples and is
strength ratio is much higher and the bubbling in used primarily for clothing textiles as well as
water is smaller. curtain fabrics.

C). Wet dyeing and finishing

The higher wet strength of polynosic fiber, less
bubble, sodium hydroxide resistant fiber allow it
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to be dyed and given a finish like the way for

cotton.
 2. Vincel and Moynel
Vincel is a polynosic fiber made by Courtaulds and known in America as Moynel, the way it is
made is not explained but is different from that made by Tachikawa. However, the properties
are the same as Japanese polynosic, namely the degree of polymerization is approximately
twice that of ordinary rayon polymerization, spherical cross-section, high crystallinity (55–
60%), low water imbibition (66%), dry strength 3.5 g/denier, 70% wet/dry strength, 8% dry
creep, 10% wet creep and initial wet modulus equal to Z 54. Moisture regained 11.8%.
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 3. SM 27
SM 27 is a Courtaulds-manufactured fiber with Vincel-like properties. The way of making it is
different from Tachikawa but the nature is the same. The dry strength is 3.2 g/denier, the wet
strength is 2.3 g/denier with a wet/dry ratio of 71%. 7% dry creep and the load required to
pull the wet fibers up to 5% stretch is 1.2 g/denier equal to that of cotton.
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 f. Alginate fiber

Alginic acid is abundant in brown seaweed. Alginic acid is a polymer of d-mannuronic acid. The
separation of alginic acid was first discovered by E.C.C. Stanford at Suxxex circa 1860. The first
alginate fibers were coarse filaments consisting of chromium-containing alginate, colored green, made
during the war of 1935–1945 for camouflage purposes. Its manufacture was discovered by Speakman
in 1939. Its fibers have a dry strength similar to that of viscose rayon and have an attractive
appearance. Another characteristic is that it is flame retardant but soluble in dilute soap and alkali
solutions, so it is not used for clothing textiles.
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 1. Manufacturer
The seaweed used is usually Laminare which is dried and ground into a powder. Seaweed powder is
worked with a solution of sodium carbonate and sodium hydroxide which will convert the alginate in
the seaweed into sodium alginate. This solution thickens and is brown in color then is purified by
precipitation, bleached and sterilized with sodium hypochlorite. The alginic acid is then reacted in solid
state with sodium carbonate to form sodium alginate ready to be spun. Spinning is done by wet
spinning into a coagulation solution containing calcium chloride, hydrochloric acid and a small amount
of cation surface active agent. The filament will precipitate as calcium alginate which is then washed,
lubricated, dried and rolled. The function of hydrochloric acid in the coagulation solution is to prevent
clogging of the holes by calcium alginate and the function of surface active agents is to prevent sticking
of the filament.
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 2. Nature
Its dry strength is almost the same as that of viscose rayon, but its wet strength is low. The elongation is
quite high for textiles. The strength and elongation of alginate fibers under various atmospheric
conditions are shown in the following table:

Atmosphere Strength g/denier Stretch, percent

Dry 2.20 10

RH. 65% 1.14 14

RH. 100% 0.29 26

Calcium alginate contains about 10% calcium, so it has a high specific gravity of 1.75. Its special
property is that it is flame retardant and soluble in slightly alkaline soap solutions.
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 3. Dyeing
Alginate fibers can be dyed directly with basic dyes because they have carboxyl groups. It can also be
dyed with Cibalan dye and has good fastness, but alginate fibers do not require dyeing because textiles
are not used.

4. Usage
Its only use is for sock separators. If the socks are knitted with alginate yarn several rows of knitting
between the socks, after separating by cutting the knitted alginate yarn and the ends of the socks are
sewn as usual, the remaining alginate threads can be removed by dissolving them in cooking. This
method is easier to use than other threads that have to be pulled and removed and also provides better
stitching results. In addition to the fiber base, sodium alginate is used to thicken reactive dye pastes
and is known as “Manutex”.
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 Fiber derived from protein
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 a. Casein fiber
Caseine fibers are fibers made by imitating protein fibers such as wool. The
manufacture of regenerated protein fiber has not progressed, probably due to the
poor nature of the fiber and its basic ingredients are taken from food, while the
world lacks food. Caseine fiber is known by several names, namely Lanital,
Aralac, Fibrolane BX, Fibrolane BC and Merinova.
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 1. Lanital and Aralac
Caseine fibers were first made by Todtenhaupt in 1904, but the fibers are brittle and have very low
strength in water. Only in 1935, an Italian Ferretti succeeded in making caseina fiber which was then
produced under the name Lanital. In the United States, the Atlantic Research Association Inc.,
conducted its own research in 1939 and produced a caseina called “Aralac”. Chemical analysis of Aralac
fiber and wool gave the following results:
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 a). Making
First, the rum is removed, then heated at 40°C and added with acid to coagulate the pro
tein. The liquid is separated and the protein is washed to remove the acid and salt. The water is removed and
the protein is dried. 100 kg of milk will produce 3 kg of caseina which can be made into yarn of the same
weight. Caseine separation is usually carried out by dairy manufacturers.
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 b). Nature
The caseina fiber handles are soft and warm. Caseine fibers do not clump. But when mixed with wool, it will
increase the clumping ability of the wool fiber, which will increase the clumping ability of the wool fiber. The
strength of caseine fibers is about 0.8–1.0 g/denier with an elongation of about 15%. In the wet state the
strength is very low, but the creep is higher. Specific gravity 1.29. Its elongated shape is cylindrical and its
cross-section is almost round and hollow. Caseine fiber is sensitive to strong alkalis, but resistant to weak
alkalis such as sodium bicarbonate or sodium phosphate used in cooking. Caseine fibers can be carbonized
safely in cold 2% sulfuric acid. Caseina is not resistant to insect and fungal attack. Caseine fibers are resistant
to solvents used in dry cleaning. Moisture regain is 14%. Drying of wet fibers should be carried out at
temperatures below 100°C, otherwise the fibers become brittle. Holds the light like wool.
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 C). Bleaching and Dyeing
Bleaching is best done with hydrogen peroxide, but it works slowly and takes a long time. At
high temperatures the caseine fibers turn yellow. Dyeing caseine fibers can be done in a
similar way to dyeing wool. Acid dyes in caseine fibers have poor color fastness, but metal
complex dyes give results not much different from wool dyeing. Chromium dyes are not good
for caseine fibers, because the processing time with chrome the fibers will shrink a lot.

d). Usage
The use of caseina fiber is mainly for blending with wool because it is cheaper. It is
also mixed with cotton and rayon. Its use is for example for ties, socks, women’s
dresses, and hats.
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 2. Fibrolane BX and Fibrolane BC
The fibers are caseine fibers manufactured by Courtaulds Ltd., UK. The original Fibrolane known as
Fibrolane A is the same as Lanital, but is no longer produced. The method of making Fibrolane BX is
almost the same as Aralac or Lanital, with the addition of pulling before being hardened with
formaldehyde, so that the fiber is stronger and has good stretchability. Fibrolane BC is a further
development of regenerated protein fibers. The method of manufacture is the same as the method of
making Fibrolane BX plus drying with chromium. Working with chrome causes an increase in the
latitude of the chrome, so that the fiber is more stable, but the fiber becomes pale green in color and is
resistant to light and is not affected by processing in dyeing or finishing.
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 3. Merinova
Merinova is a caseine fiber made by Snia Viscosa in Milan. The method of manufacture is
almost the same as the manufacture of other caseine fibers. The dry strength is 1.1 g/denier
and the wet strength is 0.6 g/denier. The dry creep is 50% and the wet creep is 60%.
Merinova is not resistant to alkali but is resistant to boiling 4% sulfuric acid solution for an
hour and a half.
Its density and moisture regain are almost the same as wool. Merinova is resistant to insect
attacks and does not shrink. Its use is mainly mixed with wool for clothing, blankets and
hats. Merinova can be bleached can be bleached with hydrogen peroxide. Dyeing can be
done by dyeing wool, but the process must be more careful, namely avoiding the use of
strong alkalis and drying should not be more than 70°C. Merinova is also dyed by solution
dyeing with colors that are color fast to light and good washing.
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 b. Ardil (peanut)
Artificial protein fiber other than caseine is Ardil. Ardil is made from peanuts which contain approximately
25% protein. Ardil began to be made by ICI in 1938 and since 1957 is not produced anymore.

1. Manufacturer
After the nuts are peeled and separated from the husks, they are ground and extracted with solvents to
remove the oil which is also a valuable by-product. After removing the oil, it is dissolved in a dilute alkali
solution, after being acidified with sulfur dioxide to a pH of 4.5% the protein will precipitate. The washed
and dried protein is a creamy white powder known as Ardein, and is spun into a solution containing 2%
sulfuric acid, and 15% sodium sulfate, then treated with formaldehyde to harden the fibers and finally
cut into staples.
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 2. Nature
The good thing is that the handle is close to the wool grip. Moisture regain is 14%.
Strength is 0.8 g/denier with elongation of approx. 50%.

3. Dyeing
The dyeing method is the same as the wool dyeing method. It has a higher affinity
for dyes than wool.

4. Usage
Almost all of its uses are mixed with wool and sometimes with cotton or rayon.
Mainly for sportswear, pajamas and clothing.
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 c. Vicara (zeina/corn)
Is a fiber derived from corn or zeina made by the Virginia Carolina Chemical Corporation from 1948 to
1957.

1. Manufacture
Zeina was extracted from corn flour using isopropyl alcohol. The alcohol is then evaporated leaving
zeina in the form of a yellow powder. Zeina is dissolved in sodium hydroxide solution, filtered,
dehydrated and aged. During ripening, protein molecules that are globular in shape will open to become
straight. The zeina solution is then spun into an acidic formaldehyde solution. Formaldehyde will form a
cross-link, then the fiber is pulled, hardened, washed, curled, dried and cut into staples.
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 2. Nature
Strength in the dry state is approximately 1.2 g/denier and in the wet state 0.75
g/denier with dry creep of 32% and wet creep of 35%. Moisture regain is about
10%. It has excellent washing resistance and better wet strength than other
regenerated protein fibers which are generally low wet strength. The dyeing
method is the same as wool dyeing.

3. Usage
Its use is mainly for blending with other fibers.
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 d. Soybean
In a short time several factories have made fiber from soy protein. Ford Motor Co. Once made it for
car seat upholstery and the Japanese made it under the name Silkwool. Compared to beans with a
protein content of 25% and corn with a protein content of 10%, soybeans have a higher protein
content of 35%.

1. Manufacturer 2. Nature
Soybean fat was extracted with hexane and the
remainder was put into a dilute sodium sulfite The dry strength is 0.8 g/denier, but the wet
solution, and then the protein was precipitated strength is only 0.25 g/denier. Elongated
with acid at pH 4.5. The protein is dissolved in a 50% and the moisture regain is 11%.
sodium hydroxide solution and spun like other
regenerated protein fiber spinning methods.
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