Biology II for Non-Majors

Plant Reproduction
Stages of a Plant’s Life Cycle

• Plants have two distinct stages in their lifecycle: the gametophyte stage and the sporophyte stage.
• The haploid gametophyte produces the male and female gametes by mitosis in distinct multicellular structures.
• Fusion of the male and females gametes forms the diploid zygote, which develops into the sporophyte.
Gymnosperm Life Cycle
Male Gametophyte
Female Gametophyte
Angiosperm Life Cycle

• The lifecycle of angiosperms follows the alternation of generations explained previously.

• The haploid gametophyte alternates with the diploid sporophyte during the sexual reproduction process of angiosperms.
• The male gametophyte develops and reaches maturity in an immature anther.
• While the details may vary between species, the overall development of the female gametophyte has two distinct phases.
Pollen Forms in the Anther
Microsporangium

Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell

divides by meiosis to give rise to four microspores, each of
which will ultimately form a pollen grain
Female Gametophyte: The Embryo Sac

• The female gametophyte is formed from mitotic divisions

of the megaspore, forming an eight-nuclei ovule sac.
• This is covered by a layer known as the integument.
• The integument contains an opening called the micropyle,
through which the pollen tube enters the embryo sac.
Flower Parts

• A typical flower has four main parts—or whorls—known as the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium.
• The outermost whorl of the flower has green, leafy structures known as sepals. The sepals, collectively called the calyx, help to protect the
unopened bud.
• The second whorl is comprised of petals—usually, brightly colored—collectively called the corolla.
• The third whorl contains the male reproductive structures and is known as the androecium. The androecium has stamens with anthers that
contain the microsporangia.
• The innermost group of structures in the flower is the gynoecium, or the female reproductive component(s). The carpel is the individual unit of
the gynoecium and has a stigma, style, and ovary.
Complete Flower
Structure
Incomplete Flowers

• There are two types of incomplete flowers: staminate

flowers contain only an androecium, and carpellate
flowers have only a gynoecium.
• Corn is monoecious, both flowers are on the same
plant.
Practice Question

What is the difference between a complete and an incomplete flower?

Superior and Inferior Flowers
Comparing Angiosperms and Gymnosperms

Angiosperms Gymnosperms
• The female gametophyte exists in an enclosed • The female gametophyte is present on exposed
structure—the ovule—which is within the ovary bracts of the female cone
• Double fertilization • No double fertilization
• Male and female structures are part of the flower. • The male and female gametophyte structures are
• Animal pollination is more common present on separate male and female cones
• Pollination by wind
Asexual Reproduction

Advantages Disadvantages
• New plant will reach maturity faster.   • There isn’t an increase in genetic diversity.
• Less investment than making a flower and
attracting pollinators.
• In stable conditions, genetically identical plants will
do as well as parent plant.
Examples of Asexual Reproduction
Natural Asexual Reproduction

• Many plants continue to grow from buds that are present on

the surface of the stem.
• In some plants, such as the sweet potato, adventitious roots
or runners can give rise to new plants.
• Some plant’s leaves have small buds on their margins that
grow into independent plants if they touch the soil.
• Some plants can be propagated through cuttings alone.
Artificial Asexual Reproduction: Grafting

Grafting produces plants combining favorable stem

characteristics with favorable root characteristics. 
Layering

In layering, a part of the stem is buried so that it

forms a new plant.
Micropropagation

Micropropagation is a method of producing a large

number of plants from a single plant in a short time
under sterile laboratory conditions.
Length of Plant Life Cycles

• Plant species that complete their lifecycle in one season are known as annuals.
• Biennials complete their lifecycle in two seasons.
• In a biennial’s first season, the plant has a vegetative phase, whereas in the next season, it completes its reproductive phase.
• Perennials complete their lifecycle in two years or more.
• Monocarpic plants flower only once in their lifetime.
• Polycarpic plants form flowers many times during their lifetime.
Aging and Death in Plants

• Susceptibility to disease, changing environmental conditions, drought, cold, and competition for nutrients are some of the
factors that determine the survival of a plant. 
• Plants continue to grow, despite the presence of dead tissue such as cork.
• Individual parts of plants, such as flowers and leaves, have different rates of survival.
• In many trees, the older leaves turn yellow and eventually fall from the tree.
• Leaf fall is triggered by factors such as a decrease in photosynthetic efficiency, due to shading by upper leaves, or oxidative
damage incurred as a result of photosynthetic reactions.
• The material is salvaged by the plant to support the growth of other plant tissues.
This Pine can live 4500 years.
Quick Review

• Discuss the reproductive development and structure of plants.

• Describe asexual reproduction methods, both natural and artificial.
• Summarize the different plant life cycles.