Biodiversity and

Healthy Society
Chapter 8
 WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY?
Biological diversity or biodiversity is the variety of
life, and refers collectively to variation at all levels of
biological organization. The term biodiversity refers to the
full abundance or variety of life — plant, animal and
microbial. This variety of life occurs at all levels of
ecological organization, but biodiversity generally refers to
genetic. species and ecosystem diversity. This is the
diversity of life upon which the health of the environment
depends. Genetic, species and ecosystem diversity are
convenient terms but because the universe is a continuum.
some practical difficulties exist in precisely defining each
of them.
• BIODIVERSITY AND HEALTHY
SOCIETY

Biodiversity is the foundation of human

health. By securing the life-sustaining goods and
services which biodiversity provides to us, the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity
can provide significant benefits for human health.
In contrast, the continuing loss of biodiversity on
a global scale represents a direct threat to our
health and well-being. Without a global
environment that is healthy and capable of
supporting a diversity of life, no human
population can exist.
BIODIVERSITY SUPPORTS FOOD SECURITY, DIETARY
HEALTH, LIVELIHOOD SUSTAINABILITY

Genetic diversity in food systems provides the

foundation of crop development and food security, and
promotes resistance and resilience to environmental
stresses including pests and diseases of crops and livestock.
Diets based on a diversity of food species promote health,
and can help to protect against disease by addressing the
problem of micronutrient and vitamin deficiencies. Loss of
agricultural biodiversity can therefore threaten health.
livelihood sustainability and our future security of food and
nutrition.
 • BIODIVERSITY PROVIDES
IMPORTANT
RESOURCES FOR MEDICAL
RESEARCH 
Studies of wildlife anatomy.
physiology and biochemistry can lead to
important developments in human
medicine. Examples of species of interest
to medical science include bears (for
insights into osteoporosis. cardio-vascular
disorders, renal disease and diabetes),
sharks (osmoregulation and immunology),
cetaceans (respiration and treatments for
divers suffering from decompression
sickness) and horse-shoe crabs
(optometry/ophthalmology and molecular
biology). 
 • BIODIVERSITY PROVIDES IMPORTANT RESOURCES
FOR TRADITIONAL AND MODERN MEDICINE

Biodiversity loss can impact

on community traditions and
livelihoods centered on
traditional medicinal practices
that utilize wild animals and
plants. particularly for
indigenous and local
communities. Millions of people
depend upon traditional
medicines for their primary
health care. 
 • BIODIVERSITY PLAYS A ROLE IN THE
REGULATION AND CONTROL OF INFECTIOUS
DISEASES 

Biodiversity loss and ecosystem change can

increase the risk of emergence or spread of infectious
diseases in animals, plants and humans. including
economically important livestock diseases. zoonotic
outbreaks and global pandemics. In recent years
outbreaks of SARS. Ebola. Marburg. Hantavirus
pulmonary syndrome. avian influenza and malaria have
been attributed to human impacts on biodiversity, the
wildlife trade or unsustainable land use change.
Without a greater understanding of disease ecology,
there is also a risk that programs to tackle infectious
diseases may impact negatively on biodiversity. through
use of biocides and other chemicals and wildlife culls. 
 • BIODIVERSITY HAS SOCIAL, CULTURAL AND
SPIRITUAL IMPORTANCE WITHIN COMMUNITIES 

Ecosystem change can result in disconnection of

populations from open spaces or the wider countryside.
with negative implications for physical and mental well-
being and loss of "sense of place". This has been linked
to an increased prevalence of 'disease of affluence'
(diabetes. obesity, cardio-pulmonary illness) and
psychological disorders in many communities.
Conversely, access to 'greenspace' (natural and artificial)
are associated with better health outcomes. shorter
hospital visits and reduced convalescence time for
patients than purely urban environments. An awareness
of environmental values and respect for other species
has been associated with reduced propensity towards
anti-social behavior in children and young adults. 
 Threats to
Biodiversity
 Habitat Loss
● Humans rely on technology to modify their
environment and make it habitable. Other
species cannot do this. Elimination of their
habitat—whether it is a forest. coral reef,
grassland. or flowing river—will kill the
individuals in the species. Remove the
entire habitat and the species will become
extinct. unless they are among the few
species that do well in human-built
environments. 
 Overharvesting
● Overhunting, overfishing and over-
harvesting contribute greatly to the
loss of biodiversity, killing off
numerous species over the past
several hundred years. Poaching and
other forms of hunting for profit
increase the risk of extinction: the
extinction of an apex predator — or. a
predator at the top of a food chain —
can result in catastrophic
consequences for ecosystems. 
 Invasive species
● Exotic species are species that have been
intentionally or unintentionally introduced by
humans into an ecosystem in which they did not
evolve. Most exotic species introductions
probably fail because of the low number of
individuals introduced or poor adaptation to the
ecosystem they enter. Some species. however,
have characteristics that can make them
especially successful in a new ecosystem. These
exotic species often undergo dramatic
population increases in their new habitat and
reset the ecological conditions in the new
environment, threatening the species that exist
there. When this happens. the exotic species
also becomes an invasive species. Invasive
species can threaten other species through
competition for resources, predation, or
 Climate Change

● Climate change. and specifically the

anthropogenic warming trend presently
underway. is recognized as a major extinction
threat, particularly when combined with other
threats such as habitat loss. Anthropogenic
warming of the planet has been observed and is
due to past and continuing emission of
greenhouse gases. primarily carbon dioxide and
methane. into the atmosphere caused by the
burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
Scientists overwhelmingly agree the present
warming trend is caused by humans and some
of the likely effects include dramatic and
dangerous climate changes in the coming
decades.
 Genetically Modified
Organisms
Biotechnology is a set of techniques that involves the use of biological processes
and living organisms for industry, agriculture and other activities. Its purpose is to
modify the natural and biological processes of living organisms without necessarily
altering the genes or genetic construct of the living organisms. It has four major
industrial processes based on balsa Wel systems, namely cell and tissue culture,
fomentation, enzyme technology, and genetic engineering—also referred to as modem
technology.
Genetic engineering or recombinant DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) technology
differs from other forms of biotechnology as it allows the isolation and transfer of
genes coding specific characteristics between living organisms to produce a new living
organism that expresses the desired characteristics of both organisms. Genetically
modified organisms or CMOs is the common term used for genetically engineered
organisms.
 INTENDED USES OF GMOs
Biomedical Used as specific models for many different human
diseases, including multiple infectious diseases.
such as HIV. immune system defects, blood, and
metabolic disorders. muscular dystrophy. cancer
immunotherapies among others.
Farm/Food Animals Engineering of animals used for food. Examples
include chickens producing only the Same
offspring for egg-laying. cows producing only male
offspring far better meat yield, pigs who can be
fattened with less food. cashmere goats for
producing more meat from greater muscle mass
and longer hair for wool yield; and efforts to
facilitate greater slacking density, such as cattle
without horns and animals with greater resistance
to disease
Agriculture Genetic engineering provides a quicker and more
precise way to achieve the same goal in one
generation. Genetically modified crops offer
improved yields, enhanced nutritional value,
longer shelf life, and resistance to drought, frost,
or insect peels. Examples of GM crops include
  Genetically modified organism (GMO) - has become the
common term consumers and popular media use to describe
foods that have been created through genetic engineering. 

Genetic engineering is a process that involves: 

• Identifying the genetic information – or “gene”, that
gives an organism (plant animal or microorganism) a
desired trait. 
• Copying the information from the organism that as the
trait.
• Inserting that information into the DNA of another
organism.
 Some Genetically Modified Organism
developed in the Philippines:
• Longer-lasting papayas
              - Institute of Plant Breeding in
UPLB developed delayed-ripening
papaya that is resistant to ring-spot
virus (PRSV). 
      - The initial project assisted by the
Australian government developed a
papaya variety with a 14-day shelf
life, or double the usual 6 days. 
 Some Genetically Modified Organism developed in the
Philippines:
• Protein enriched copra meal (PECM) as feed -One of the program’s accomplishments is the use of
protein for tilapia, milkfish and shrimp formulated feeds for swine, poultry and aquatic animals
aquaculture with Protein Enriched Copra Meal (PECM) that was
developed by the National Institute of Molecular Biology
-Primarily used as animal feed, copra meal is an and Biotechnology of the University of the Philippines
important feed resource in the Philippines. In Los Banos (UPLB – BIOTECH).
2014, the Philippines produced about 750,000
metric tons of copra meal as coconut by-
product.    -To address the issue on high cost of         -The PECM is enriched with microorganism that
soybean importation and to ensure the quality increase the protein content of copra meal to about 36 to
of animal feeds, the Philippine Council for 44% crude protein content, comparable to the 46% of
Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources soybean meal. 
Research and Development of the Department
of Science and Technology (DOST –
PCARRD) supported research and development
(R&D) programs on feed resources under its
Industry Strategic Science and
Technology(S&T) Program (ISP).
 Some Genetically Modified Organism developed in the
Philippines:
• Tomato Leaf Curve Virus (ToLCV) – resistant Variety
          -The Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) of the University of the
Philippines Los Banos (UPLB) Has developed tomato breeding
line resistant to tomato leaf curl virus (TolCV) in the hope or
reviving tomato’s robust production in the country.
-The research team developed the candidate ToLCV - resistant
tomato lines acquired from the Asian Vegetable Research and
Development Center (AVRDC)- The World Vegetable Center.
   ToLCV -resistance in the donor parental lines, hybrids and the delivered lines
from the initial hybrids was verified by exposing the plants to the ToLCV –
Laguna isolate and by marker-assisted selection (MAS). 
MAS – can predict even at early seedling stage whether a plant
will grow to express a trait of interest based on the mere
presence or absence of gene markers. 
     Gene markers – are short unique DNA sequences located near the
DNA sequence of the gene responsible for a desired physical
characteristics / trait in each generation of plants produced. In
this case, markers for genes responsible for the resistance to
ToLCV confirmed successful transfer of the resistance gene in the
genetic make-up of the developed tomato lines. 
 Some Genetically Modified Organism developed in the
Philippines:

• Bt Corn
Bt corn in the Philippines was
engineered to specifically resistant to the
Asian com borer (ACB, Ostrinia furnacalis
(Guenee), the most devastating corn pests
in the industry. It was introduced as a
"practical and ecologically sustainable
solution" for poor corn farmers, a major
bullet to combat poverty and improve
livelihood.
The adoption rate of biotech maize in
2015 is at 63 percent. In the period 2003 to
2015, there were 13 years of consecutive
growth in hectarage of Bt corn, except for
2015 due to drought
Potential of
GM crops
1. Better nutritional qualities- rice with provitamin A and iron; com with high lysine
tryptophan; vegetables with higher ~carotene and lycopene legumes with higher sulfur-
containing amino acids: sweet potato with higher protein content.

2. Engineering pest or disease resistance in important crops such as rice and can, various
vegetables. Sweet pasta and others especially those important for developing countries.

3. Edible Vaccine - Aimed at providing low cost immunization strategy for developing
countries; banana with antigen of casual organism of diarrhea is now at clinical trial stage.
Vaccine com for gastroenteric in hogs, hepatitis B in human, etc.
4. Antibodies engineered and produced in plants- expressed antibodies in potato, tobacco
and rapeseed were stable and active; need to increase expression level.
5. Crops which an extract and detoxify pollutants from the environment such as
heavy metals this research is hampered by the lack of basic knowledge on the
molecular mechanism involved in the uptake and storage of inorganics in plants.
6. Crops which produce less toxic residues such as corn with low phytate, 15 Phytate
complexes phosphorus and thus latter becomes unavailable and cannot released by
nonruminants. A large amount of phosphate is excreted and contributes to water
pollution.
7. Production of alternative polymers which can replace or substitute and other
petrochemical products in plants and thus are renewable and biodegrable.
Risk Related to the Use
of Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs)
 Genetic
Contamination/Interbreeding.
Introduced GMOs may interbreed with wild-type or sexually
compatible relatives. The novel trait may disappear in wild types
unless it confers a selective advantage to the recipient. However,
tolerance abilities of wild types may also develop, thus altering the
native species' ecological relationship and behavior.
 Competition with Natural Species

Faster growth of GMOs can enable them to have a

competitive advantage over the native organisms. This
may allow them become invasive, to spread into new
habitats, and cause ecological and economic damage.
Increased Selection Pressure on Target and Non-target
Organisms

Pressure may increase on target and non-target

species to adapt to the introduced changes as if to a
geological change or a natural selection pressure
causing them to evolve distinct resistant populations.
 Ecosystem Impacts

The effects of changes in a single species may

extend well beyond to the ecosystem. Single impacts
are always joined by the risk of ecosystem damage and
destruction.
 Impossibility of Follow-up
Once the GMOs have been introduced into the
environment and some problems arise, it is impossible
to eliminate them. Many of these risks are identical to
those incurred with regards to the introduction of
naturally or conventionally bred species. But still this
does not suggest that GMOs are safe or beneficial, nor
that they should be less scrutinized.
 Loss of Management Control
Measures
Regulatory approvals for field trials of GMOs often
require measures to limit and control the release in
space and time. With the spread of the introduced
gene(s) to another species by HGT, a new GMO is
created. This new GMO may give rise to adverse
effects which are not controlled by management
measures imposed by the original license or permit.
 Long-term Effects

Sometimes the impact of HGT may be more severe

in the long term. Even under relatively strong selection
pressure, it may take thousands of generations for a
recipient organism to become the dominant form in the
population. In addition, other factors such as timing of
appropriate biotic or abiotic environmental conditions
and additional changes in the recipient organism could
delay adverse effects.
 Antibiotic Resistance and Horizontal Gene Transfe
Most of the first generation of GM crops have
antibiotic resistance gene as selectable marker. It has
been hypothesized that such antibiotic resistance genes
could lead to the innovation of oral doses of the
antibiotic, or that these genes could be transferred to
pathogenic microorganisms in the gut or the soil which
will render them resistant to such antibiotics. .
GMOs and Biodiversity

The impact of GMOs on biodiversity is widely debated. Pro-GMO researchers maintain

that if crops are genetically modified for pest resistance, farmers can reduce their reliance
on insecticides, so that local fauna, such as birds, rodents, and insects, can flourish in the
area. Secondary pests that would have been eliminated through widespread insecticide
application are not suppressed by the scaled-back insecticide use permitted GMOs. Because
these secondary pests remain, other small predator—the birds and rodents that feed on the
secondary pests-remain viable. In addition, the development of drought-resistant or flood-
resistant crops allows arid or flood-prone land to be used for growing crops.

This means that less high-biodiversity terrain needs to be converted for farming.
It has been hypothesized that GM crops can harm insect species that are not pests. Insects
that feed on GM crops will carry GM pollen, which may prove toxic in the long term and
result in depletion or even extinction of insect populations. The genetic integrity of any plant
or insect that lives in close proximity to GM crops can be compromised because gene
transfer from one organism to another can occur, and such genes may pose unanticipated
risks. GM traits have been found transferred to insects, water life and soil.