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WELCOME TO e W
PSY325: PSYCHOLOGY OF THE SELF
o n
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TODAY’S LECTURE
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 Introduction to the self O N
E
 What is the self?
D US
 Historical perspectives Part I I Z E
 William James H OR
The symbolic interactionists U T

A
 20R
The self in Psychology during the O th
century
1 F

2 2
The self in contemporary 0Psychology
 er
Is the self unique tolkhumans?
Wa
o n e
Si m
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©
 LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E William James (1890)
OR
HISTORICAL
H PERSPECTIVES
U T
R A
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WILLIAM JAMES
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 William James (1890) O N
E
 “I-Self”
D US
 Self as subject or “knower”
I Z E
 “Me-Self”
H OR
 Self as object or “known” U T
R A
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WILLIAM JAMES – “I-SELF”
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Self-Agency
Self-Agency
O N
the
the sense
sense of
of the
the authorship
authorship over
over one’s
one’s E
thoughts
thoughts and
and actions
actions
D US
I Z E
Self-awareness
Self-awareness
an
an appreciation
appreciation for
for one’s
one’s internal H OR
states,
states, needs,
needs, thoughts,
internal
thoughts, and
and emotions U T
emotions
R A
FO Self- Agency
02 1 Self-
Self-Coherence
Self-Continuity
Self- Awareness
Self-Coherence
Self-Continuity
Awareness
Self-coherence
Self-coherence
er 2
aa stable
alk
stable sense
sense of
of the
the self
self as
as aa single,
single,
coherent,
o n eW
coherent, bounded
bounded entity
entity

Si m
D r.
Self-continuity
Self-continuity
© the
the sense
sense that
person
that one
person over
one remains
over time
time
remains the
the same
same
WILLIAM JAMES – “ME-SELF”
Material Self
LY
O N
Multiple U
E
S selves
social
Social Self
ED others who
• Multiple
I Z
R recognize us and carry an
H O image of us in their mind
Spiritual Self
U T • May not all speak with the
R A same voice
Personality
FO • May be harmonious
Moral judgements
02 1 • May be discordant

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Thoughts • Individual must

alk Beliefs selectively choose

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roles and suppress
o nCharacteristics recognizable alternatives
Si m by others
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© Bodily self
& possessions
WILLIAM JAMES - CONTRIBUTIONS
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 First systematic conceptualization of the self within Opsychology N
SE
 Paved the way for future… D U
 Multidimensional theories of the self I Z E
O R
 Hierarchical theories of the self T H
AU
 Conflict of multiple role-related selves
O R
 Theories of the “Extended2self” 1 F
2 0
k e r the skin”
 Self that goes “beyond
a l
e W others as a part of itself
 Self that includes
o n
i m
 Non-dualistic
S self
D r.
©
WILLIAM JAMES - LIMITATIONS
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 Focused more on structure with relatively little about O N
function
SE
 How does the self-develop? D U
I Z E
 Self as a cognitive construct O R
T H
AU
O R
1 F
2 02
k e r
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 LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E Symbolic Interactionists
OR
HISTORICAL
H PERSPECTIVES
U T
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SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS
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 Emphasize how social interactions with others shape O Nthe self
SE
 Self is viewed as a social construction, crafted D U
through linguistic
I Z E
exchanges (symbolic interactions) with others R
H O
 Complex construction of a self that U Tcan be experienced as…
R A
 coherent
FO
0 2 1
 integrated
e r 2
 authentic al k
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o n
Sim
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©
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS - SIMILARITIES
LY
 Focus on certain processes that are integral to the construction O N of
S E
the self U
ED
 Imitation of others’ behaviour, attitudes, values,
R I Z or standards
H O
 Adjustment of behaviour to garner the
U T approval of salient socializing
agents R A
F O
 Internalization
02 1
 Adoption of… e r 2
a l k
W
 opinions that significant others are perceived to hold toward the self
 others’ o ne beliefs etc., as our own
standards,
Sim
D r.
©
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISTS - DIFFERENCES
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 However, they differ in terms of their specific… O N
SE
 Formulation of each process or stage
D U
 Formulation of the consequences or outcomes I Z E
of each process or stage
O R
 Emphasis on a particular process or outcome T H
AU
O R
1 F
2 0 2
k e r
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o n
Sim
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©
JAMES BALDWIN (1897)
LY
 Construction of the self is a very O N
E
social, dialectical process between
D US
the self (ego) and other (alter) I Z E
 Sense of self is based upon: H OR
U T
 suggestions from others
R A
 an individual’s sense of self FO
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JAMES BALDWIN (1897)
LY
 Habitual self O N
E
 Is ever changing
D US
 How? I Z E
 Accommodating self H OR
U T
Adjusts behavior by imitating others in response to approval or disapproval from alters
A


 New behavior is “passed on” to the R

F O habitual self
2 1
 As the child moves into the world of school, more “alters” appear leading to greater
0 of attributes that will come to define the self
r 2
complexities in the adoption
e
a l k
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o n
Sim
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©
JAMES BALDWIN (1897) - CONTRIBUTIONS
LY
 Two themes have reappeared in contemporary theories O N of the self
SE
 The self during its formative years represents a process
D U of change
 Multiplicity of self-structure I Z E
O R
T H contexts as well as within a given
 Attributes of the self may differ across relational

relational context A U
O Rbetween multiple selves?
F
 What happens when there is conflict
1
2 02
k e r
a l
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o n
Sim
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CHARLES COOLEY (1902)
LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E
H OR
U T
R A
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© Rcragun (2009). The Looking-Glass Self. Retrieved December 27, 2010 from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_looking_glass_self.png
CHARLES COOLEY (1902)
LY
 The “looking-glass self” O N
E
 Significant others constituted a social
D US
mirror
I Z E
 We look into this mirror in order to O R
T H
detect others’ opinions toward the self
AU
 These opinions are, in turn, O R
1 F
2 02
incorporated into one’s sense of self
 Thus what becomes theeself
k r is what
we imagine othersW al of us
think
o n e
Sim “Each to each a
D r.
© looking glass…”
CHARLES COOLEY (1902)
LY
 During formative years, our self-idea is composed of: O N
SE
1. The imagination of our appearance to the other person
D U
2. The imagination of that person’s judgment I
ofZ E
that appearance
O R
H
3. Some sort of self-feeling, namely, anTaffective reaction to these reflected
AU
appraisals R
FO
 Namely pride or shame
02 1
e r 2
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CHARLES COOLEY (1902)
LY
 Adult’s sense of self is not immediately dependent on O Nopinion’s of
SE
others U
ED
 Rather, over time the reflected self becomes R I Z a stable portion of
H O
thought that is somewhat apart from U Tits external origin
R A
FO
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CHARLES COOLEY (1902) - CONTRIBUTIONS
LY
 Paved the way for: O N
E
S of other are
 A more developmental perspective on how the attitudes
D U
incorporated into the self I Z E
O R
 Consequences of the internalization processT H for adults
AU
 Modern analysis of whether self-concepts
R are malleable or resistant to
FO
change
0 2 1
 Developmental analysis e 2
r of how pride and shame may emerge
al k
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o n
Sim
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GEORGE MEAD (1925)
LY
 Elaboration of themes identified by O N
Cooley SE
D U
 Greater emphasis on the role of I Z E
O R
social interaction H
T
 Two-stage developmental process R AU
though which the child adopts1theFO
2 0 2
attitudes of others toward
er the self
 Play alk
 Games o n eW
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©
GEORGE MEAD (1925)
LY
 “Play” O N
E
 The child…
D US

I Z E
Observes and imitates roles of others in adult society in order to…
 Gain an understanding of those roles
H OR
 Build a self
U T
 Self as both subject and object
R A
FO
 “Games” 1
2 02
 Proscribed procedures k e rand rules
 The child mustW
al
e now take on the role of everyone else and not just distinct others
o nhow every participant in the ‘game’ will behave informs one about how one should
Si m
 Knowing

D r.
behave as a participant in the ‘game’
©
GEORGE MEAD (1925)
LY
 Through “Games” the individual is introduced to theO“generalized N
SE
other” U
ED
I Z
 Individual comes to adopt the generalized perspective
R of a group of
significant others that shares a particular H O
societal perspective on the self
U T
 Judgments of numerous significant A
R others are somehow
FO
psychologically weighted 1
02 in order to produce an overall sense of
e r 2
self-worth al k
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o n
Sim
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©
OTHER THEORISTS? PSYCHOANALYTIC
LY
 Sigmund Freud (1920s) N
O
 Proposed a “structural model” of the human psycheUS
E
ED
 Id
RI Z
 Ego
H O
U T
 Superego
R A
 Not a theory or model of the O
F self
02 1
 Carl Jung (1920s) lker 2
 Self an archetype Wa
n e representing the unification of the unconscious,
m o ego through process of individuation
consciousSi and
D r.
©
 LY
O N
E
US
D Century: Behaviourism & after
I Z E20 th

OR
HISTORICAL
H PERSPECTIVES
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20TH CENTURY – BEHAVIOURISM
LY
 With the emergence of behaviourism, investigation of O Nthe self was
SE
ignored because the behaviourist movement: U
ED
 Emphasized observable constructs
RI Z
H O
 Did not use self-reports
U T
R
 Could not clearly specify the functions A of self-constructs
FO
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20TH CENTURY – SECOND HALF
LY
 Eventually self-constructs as predictors of behaviourOgained N more
SE
acceptance U
ED
 Why? RI Z
H O
 Behaviourism fell out of favour
U T
 Behaviourally-oriented therapists R A
FO
 Cognitive revolution 02 1
e r 2
 Self-esteem
al k
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o n
Sim
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 LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E
CONTEMPORARYUDEFINITIONS OR
OF THE SELF
TH
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20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
LY
 Leary & Tangney O N
E
 Self as the total person
D US
 “Self” is synonymous with “person” I Z E
 Ex. Self-mutilation, self-monitoring H OR
T
 Problem(s): AU R
 O
A person is a self vs. each personFhas a self
0 2 1
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a l k
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o n
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20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
LY
 Leary & Tangney O N
E
 Self as personality US
D
“Self” is all or part of an individual’s personality IZ E
O R
 Collection of abilities, temperament, goals, values,
T H and preferences that distinguish one
individual from another
A U

O R
Ex. Self-actualization, narcissism, self-esteem
 Problem(s): 1 F
2 2
0 of the self & identity?
k e r
 phenomenological experience
 within psychologyl this may lead to confusion – are personality psychologists all really self
W a
n e
psychologists?
o ability to direct attention to oneself?
 whatm
S i about
D r.
©
20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
LY
 Leary & Tangney O N
E
 Self as the experiencing subject
D US
“Self” is that which thinks one’s thoughts, feels one’s I Z E feelings, etc
O R
 The “I-self”
T H
 Self-awareness theory
A U
 Self-perception theory
O R
1 F
 Problem(s):
2 0 2
 what is the “self” that r
l k e people are experiencing?
W a
o n e
Sim
D r.
©
20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
LY
 Leary & Tangney O N
E
 Self as beliefs about oneself
D US
The “Me-self” – perceptions, thoughts, and feelings I Z E
about oneself
O R
 Ex. Self-image, self-concept
T H
 Problem(s):
A U
R
Othey may hold about themselves
F
 self is not just the set of beliefs that
1
0 2
 self is also that which experiences
2
or is aware of one’s perceptions, thoughts, and feelings

k e r
al
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20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
LY
 Leary & Tangney O N
E
 Self as the executive agent US
D
 E
“Self” as a decision maker and doer that regulatesIZone’s own behaviour
O R
 Ex. Self-control, self-regulation
T H
 Problem(s):
AU
 what is the ‘self” that is regulated?OR
1 F
2 02
k e r
a l
e W
o n
Sim
D r.
©
20TH CENTURY AND BEYOND
LY
 Leary and Tangney ON
E
S as the object of its
 The mental capacity that allows an animal to take itself
D U
own attention and to think consciously aboutIitself Z E
O R
 Reflexive consciousness T H
AU
 The self is necessary for attentional, R cognitive, and executive processes
FO
0 2 1
e r 2
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o n
Sim
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©
20TH CENTURY & BEYOND
LY
 Social neuroscience O N
E
 Ex. Self-awareness & self-knowledge
D US
Medial Prefrontal Cortex (MPFC) I Z E
O R
H
 Increased activity when processing self-relevant information, engaged in self-reflection,
ofTautobiographical memory information
attending to personal preferences, retrievalU
R A vs. adolescence)
 Age-related changes in activity (ex. Childhood
FO
0 2 1
 Decreased activity during mindfulness meditation

e r 2
al k
e W
o n
S im
D r.
©
20TH CENTURY & BEYOND
LY
 Social neuroscience O N
E
 Ex. Affective self
DUS
 Limbic System [ex. Amygdala, Anterior Cingulate I Z E
Cortex (ACC)]
O R
 Mentalizing (self-coherence) T H
 MPFC AU
O R
 Temporal-parietal junction (TPJ)
1 F
2 0 2
 Self-regulation
k e r
l
 PFC (esp. MPFC,aOrbitofrontal cortex & lateral PFC)
e W
o n
Sim
D r.
©
 I know that
you’re looking at
me…and I am
LY
adorable
O N
E
D US
I Z E
H OR
U T
R A
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SELF-KNOWLEDGE
LY
 Parker (1997) O N
E
 All organisms exhibit self-knowledge
D US
 Self-knowledge I Z E
OR
Htheir own being is located in or

T
Organisms’ knowledge that some aspect of
originates in their bodies AU R
O
Species-specific ability
1F


2 02
to process and map information about their own bodies onto representations of their own bodies

lk er
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SELF-KNOWLEDGE
LY
O N
E
D
Ex. Self-consciousness (self-concept, self- US
evaluation)
I Z E
H OR
U T
Ex. Self-awareness (visual-kinesthetic
A
matching, mirrorRself-recognition)
FO
0 2 1
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r Self-detection (cellular & tissue level)
Ex.
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©Species
Taxonomy
SELF-RECOGNITION IN NONHUMAN ANIMALS
LY
 Gallup (1970) concluded that MSR implied the presence O N of self-
SE
awareness (“the ability to monitor your own mental U states”) and a
ED
self-concept* RI Z
H O
U T
R A
FO
02 1
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SELF-RECOGNITION IN NONHUMAN ANIMALS
L Y
 But, does an organism need self-awareness and/or aOself-concept N to
S E
engage in mirror-contingent behaviour? U
E D
 No
RI Z
 Proprioceptive/kinesthetic feedback/matching H O
T
Uproprioceptive, and somasthetic sensations of one’s
A
 Capacity for matching between kinesthetic,
R feeling, and visual images of one’s own body’s
F
own body’s position and one’s ownObodily
position and others’ bodies. 21
2 0
k e r
a l
W that is me in the mirror to use the mirror to direct my own behaviour
Don’t need to “know”
e
o n
Sim
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SELF-RECOGNITION IN NONHUMAN ANIMALS
LY
 Yes O N
E
 Povinelli & Cant (1995) US
D

I
Formation of a relation between the object of perceptionZ E and some representation
of the self O R
H
T by me’
A U
 Ex. ‘the action by the mirror-image was caused

 Ex. ‘that mirror-image is about me’ R

FO
0 2 1
e r 2
 How similar is MSR a k
l in chimpanzees and humans?
e
 Ex. De Veer etWal. (2003)
o n
Sim
D r.
©
WHY MSR IN CHIMPS & HUMANS?
LY
 Apprenticeship (Tool Use) hypothesis O N
E
 For extractive foraging
D US
 Requires imitation of others I Z E
O R
 Need self-awareness to imitate others T H
UAand internal states

O R
Monitor one’s own body movements
F

21
Match one’s own body movements
2
to those of others
0
lk er
a
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©
WHY MSR IN CHIMPS & HUMANS?
LY
 Clamboring hypothesis NO
SE
 Increase in body weight of common ancestor occurred
D U
 Created problems for gap-crossing
I Z E
O R
 Common ancestor developed self-awareness T H to navigate arboreal
environment AU
O R
 Self as a causal agent 1 F
2 02
k e r
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o n
Sim
D r.
©
 WHAT ABOUT MSR IN OTHER NON-HUMAN ANIMALS?

LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E
H OR
U T
Orangutans
R A Gorillas

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© Bonobos Chimpanzees
 WHAT ABOUT MSR IN OTHER NON-HUMAN ANIMALS?

LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E
H OR
U T
R A
FO
European Elephants
Parrots 1
2 02
Magpies

k e r
l
?
a
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Si m
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© Atlantic Bottle-nose
Orcas Dolphins
 LY
O N
E
D US
I Z E
A FEW WORDS ABOUT OR
H RESEARCH METHODS
U T
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WHAT MAKES A GOOD THEORY?
LY
1. Comprehensiveness: explains all the facts/observations O N
SE
2. Heuristic value: guides researchers to new discoveries D U
I Z E
3. Testability (usefulness): allows derivation O R of precise & testable
T H
hypotheses A U
O R
4. Parsimony: requires as few 1 Fpremises as necessary*
2 0 2
5. Compatibility & integration
e r across domains: consistent with what
alk
is already known e W
o n
Sim
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©
IMPORTANT CRITERIA
LY
 Reliability NO
SE
 Yields consistent information over time and across observers
U
D half, internal consistency
Z
 Ex. Test-retest (temporal stability), inter-rater, split form,
I Esplit
(e.g. Cronbach’s α) O R
T H
 Validity A U
 Measures what it is supposed toFmeasure OR
0 2 1
e r 2
 Ex. Content validity (face, construct), Criterion validity [Concurrent (convergent validity,
al
discriminant validity),k Predictive], Internal validity, External validity
 Replicability on e W
 Ability toSim
reproduce (or duplicate) research experiments
D r.
©
TO SUM UP
LY
 William James & the symbolic interactionists proposed O Nthe most
SE
influential historical conceptualizations of the self U that differ in terms
E D
of the role of social interactions in shapingRIthe Z self
H O
 Although, with the rise of behaviourism, U T the self was largely ignored
in mainstream psychology, byOthe A
R 2nd half of the 20th century, the self
1 F
once again became a topic 0 2 of study
e r 2
 While all organisms al kpossess some form of self-knowledge, only
e W
humans seemonto have the most sophisticated forms of self-knowledge
Sim
D r.
©