REFRIGERATION AND AIR-CONDITIONING

PREPARED BY

Dr. Biplab Das

 
Department Of Mechanical Engineering
1

National Institute Of Technology Silchar

2 PRINCIPLE & APPLICATION OF REFRIGERATION

Definition: Refrigeration is defined as the branch of science that deals with the
process of reducing and maintaining the temperature of a space or material
below the temperature of the surroundings.

 The purpose of refrigerator is to transfer heat from a cold chamber which is

at a temperature lower than that of its surroundings.

 The natural flow of heat from the surroundings back to the cold chamber can
be resisted by insulating the chamber from the surroundings.
 FUNDAMENTAL OF REFRIGERATION:
 Refrigeration is a science of producing and maintaining temperature below
that of the surrounding temperature. this means removing of heat from a
substance to be cooled.
 In simple, refrigeration means cooling of or removal of heat from a system.
The equipment employed to maintain the system at low temp. Is termed as
refrigerating system. The system which is kept at low temp. Is termed as
refrigerated system. Refrigeration is generally produced in one of the
following ways

1. By melting a solid
2. By sublimating a solid
3. By evaporation of a liquid
 Most of the commercial refrigeration is produced by the evaporation
of liquid called refrigerant.
 Mechanical refrigeration is depends upon the evaporation of liquid
refrigerant and its circuit include the equipment naming evaporator,
compressor, condenser and expansion valve.
Important refrigeration application :
1. Ice making
2. Transportation of food above and below freezing
3. Industrial air-conditioning
4. Comfort air-conditioning
5. Chemical and related industries
6. Medical and surgical aids etc.
ELEMENTS OF REFRIGERATION SYSTEM :

A. A low temp. Thermal sink

B. Means of extracting energy from the sink, raising the temp. level
C. A receiver to which heat will be transferred from the high temp.
High pressure refrigerant
D. Means of reducing of pressure and temperature of the refrigerant

 Various refrigeration system:-

i. Ice refrigeration
ii. Air refrigeration
iii. Vapour compression refrigeration system
iv. Vapour absorption refrigeration system
v. Specific refrigeration system
 START WITH REVERSED CARNOT
CYCLE
 Schematics diagram for reversed Carnot cycle
 Process 1-2-: The refrigerant absorbs heat

isothermally from a low temp. Source at TL in

Warm medium
the amount of QL .
4 3

 Process 2-3-: Refrigerant compressed Condenser

isentropically (temp. Rises to the TH ) Turbine Compressor

Evaporator
2
 Process 3-4-: Heat rejected isothermally to the 1

high temp. Sink at TH in the amount of QH

Cold medium

 Process 4-1-: Refrigerant expand isentropically

and temp. Drop to TL

REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE IS NOT SUITABLE
MODE FOR REFRIGERATION CYCLE

In process 2-3 and 4-1 can not be

T 4 3
approximated closely in practice. This is
because of
1 2
1. process 2-3 involves the compression of
liquid-vapour mixture. Which require a
compressor that will handle two phases. S

2. Process 4-1 involves the expansion of

high moisture content refrigerant in the
turbine.
THE IDEAL VAPOUR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE -:

Many of impracticalities associated with reversed Carnot cycle can be eliminated by vaporising the
refrigerant completely before it is compressed and by replacing the turbine with a throttling device, such as an
expansion valve. The cycle that results is called vapour-compression refrigeration cycle. It consists the
following four processes-:

•Process 1-2 -: isentropic compression in compressor

•Process 2-3 -: constant-pressure heat rejection in a condenser

•Process 3-4 -: throttling in an expansion device

•Process 4-1 -: constant-pressure heat absorption in an evaporator

Schematic and T-S diagram for the ideal vapour-compression
refrigeration cycle
Warm medium QH 2
T
3 2
3
Condenser

Expansion Compressor
Valve
Evaporator
1
4 4, 4 1

QL

S
Cold medium

In an ideal vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant enter the compressor at state 1 as saturated vapour and is

compressed isentropically to the condenser pressure. The temp. Of the refrigerant increases during this compression to well above

the temp. Of the surrounding.

The refrigerant then enter to the condenser as superheated vapour and leaves as saturated liquid as a result of heat rejection to the

surroundings.
  The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to the evaporator pressure by
passing through an expansion valve. The temp. Of the refrigerant drops below the temperature
of refrigerated space.
 Refrigerant enter the evaporator as low-quality mixture and completely evaporates by
absorbing heat from the refrigerated space.

Coefficient of performance for this cycle

HEAT EXTRACTED OR REFRIGERATING EFFECT

C.O.P = WORK DONE

h1 h4
C.O.P = h2 h1 (from T-S diagram)
SIMPLE VAPOUR-COMPRESSION CYCLE
ON P-H CHART
P (Pressure)

3 Condensation 2

Throttling compression

4 Evaporation 1

H(Enthalpy)
FACTORS AFFECTING THE PERFORMANCE OF
VAPOUR COMPRESSION SYSTEM

1. Suction pressure
2. Delivery pressure
3. Effect of superheating
4. Effect of sub-cooling of liquid
5. Effect of suction temperature and condenser
temperature
ACTUAL VAPOUR COMPRESSION
CYCLE-:
 Actual vapour compression cycle is different from the theoretical cycle in several
ways due to following reason -:
1. Frequently the liquid refrigerant is sub-cooled before it is allowed to enter the
expansion valve, and usually the gas leaving the evaporator is superheated a few
degrees before it enters the compressor.
2. Compression may usually neither isentropic nor polytropic.
3. Both the compressor suction and discharge valves are actuated by pressure
difference.
4. isentropic compression contains heat transfer
5. Pressure drop in long suction.
T-S DIAGRAM -:
Process 1-2-3. this process represents
passage of refrigerant through the
evaporator
T (temp.)
Process 3-4-5-6-7-8. this process 6
represents the passage of the vapour 7
refrigerant from the entrance to the 8
discharge of the compressor 10 9

Process 8-9-10-11. this process 11

represents the passage of refrigerant 3 4 5

through the condenser. 1 2

Process 11-1. this process represents

passage of the refrigerant through the S(entropy)
expansion valve.
VAPOUR ABSORPTION SYSTEM-:

 In vapour absorption system, the function of a compressor is accomplished in a three

step process by the use of the absorber, pump and generator as follows-:

 Absorber : absorption of the refrigerant vapour by its weak or poor solution in a suitable
absorbent , forming a strong or rich solution of the refrigerant in the absorbent.
 Pump : pumping of the rich solution raising its pressure to the condenser pressure .
 Generator : distillation of vapour from the rich solution leaving the poor solution for
recycling.
 A simple vapour absorption system, therefore, consists of a condenser, as expansion
device and an evaporator as in the vapour compression system, and in addition an
absorber a pump, a generator and a pressure reducing valve.
 The fig. Is given as follows-:
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM-:

1 5

QH

C G
Qc

6 2

Q0 7 8

E 3

A
P 4

QA
17 CARNOT REFRIGERATION CYCLE
 The Carnot refrigeration cycle performs the reverse effect of the heat engine,
because it transfers energy from a low level of temperature to a high level of
temperature.

Heat rejection
3 2
CONDENSER

COMPRESSOR
EXPANDER

4 1
EVAPORATOR

Heat addition
18
The processes that constitute the cycle are:
 Process 1 - 2, Isentropic compression, S1 = S2
 Process 2 - 3, Isothermal heat rejection at T2 = T3
 Process 3 - 4, Isentropic expansion, S3 = S4.
 Process 4 - 1, Isothermal heat addition (heat absorption from the cold
reservoir) at T1 = T4.
 All the processes in the Carnot cycle are thermodynamically reversible.
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are consequently reversible adiabatic (isentropic).
19
EFFICIENCY CARNOT CYCLE

The Carnot cycle, consists of reversible process which make its efficiency higher

than could be achieved in an actual cycle. Although Carnot cycle is an

unattainable ideal cycle, it necessary to study the cycle because of the following

reasons.

 It serves as a standard of comparison, and

 It provides a convenient guide to the temperatures that should be maintained to

achieve maximum effectiveness.

   

20

T (K)

3 2
Tc
NET WORK
Te 1
4 USEFUL
REFRIGERATION
s (kJ/kgK)
21 IMPORTANT PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES:
 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as
measured by a standard thermometer or other temperature measuring
instruments.
 Saturated Vapour Pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water
vapour at the dry bulb temperature.
 Relative Humidity (Φ) is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water
vapour in moist air to mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the
same temperature and pressure. Using perfect gas equation we can show
that:
 Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When Φ
22 is 100 percent, the air is saturated.
Humidity Ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) W
is the mass of water associated with each kilogram of dry air.
Assuming both water vapour and dry air to be perfect gases, the
humidity ratio is given by:

Substituting the values of gas constants of water vapour and air Rv

and Ra in the above equation; the humidity ratio is given by:
23  For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated
vapour pressure psat from the thermodynamic property tables on steam. Using the
above equation, we can find the humidity ratio at saturated conditions, W sat.
 Dew-Point Temperature: If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure,
then the temperature at which the moisture in the air begins to condense is
known as dew-point temperature (DPT) of air. An approximate equation for
dew-point temperature is given by:
  Degree of Saturation μ: The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio W to
24
the humidity ratio of a saturated mixture Ws at the same temperature and pressure, i.e.,

µ = W̸Wst,P

 Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the
enthalpy of the water vapour. Enthalpy values are always based on some reference value.
For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0oC, and for water vapour the
enthalpy of saturated water is taken as zero at 0oC.

 The enthalpy of moist air is given by:

  where cp = specific heat of dry air at constant pressure, kJ/kg.K
25  cpw = specific heat of water vapour, kJ/kg.K
 t = Dry-bulb temperature of air-vapour mixture, oC
 W = Humidity ratio, kg of water vapour/kg of dry air
 ha = enthalpy of dry air at temperature t, kJ/kg
 hg = enthalpy of water vapour at temp t, kJ/kg
 hfg = latent heat of vaporization at 0oC, kJ/kg
 The unit of h is kJ/kg of dry air. Substituting the approximate values of c p and hg,
we obtain:
  Humid specific heat: From the equation for enthalpy of moist air, the humid
26
specific heat of moist air can be written as:

 where cpm = humid specific heat, kJ/kg.K

 cp = specific heat of dry air, kJ/kg.K
 cpw = specific heat of water vapour, kJ/kg
 W = humidity ratio, kg of water vapour/kg of dry air
 Since the second term in the above equation (w.cpw) is very small compared to the
first term, for all practical purposes, the humid specific heat of moist air, c pm can be
taken as 1.0216 kJ/kg dry air.K
27
 Specific Volume: The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic
meters of moist air per kilogram of dry air. From perfect gas equation since
the volumes occupied by the individual substances are the same, the
specific volume is also equal to the number of cubic meters of dry air per
kilogram of dry air, i.e.,
28
 Psychrometric chart: A Psychrometric chart graphically
represents the thermodynamic properties of moist air.
 Standard psychrometric charts are bounded by the dry-bulb
temperature line (abscissa) and the vapour pressure or humidity
ratio (ordinate). The Left Hand Side of the psychrometric chart is
bounded by the saturation line.
 Adiabatic Saturation Temperature: is defined as that
temperature at which water, by evaporating into air, can bring the
air to saturation at the same temperature adiabatically.
 Adiabatic Saturator: An adiabatic saturator is a device using
which one can measure theoretically the adiabatic saturation
temperature of air.
  Schematic of a psychrometric chart for a given barometric pressure

29
30 Thermodynamic Wet Bulb Temperature:

After the adiabatic saturator has achieved a steady-state condition, the temperature

indicated by the thermometer immersed in the water is the thermodynamic wet-bulb

temperature.

PSYCHROMETER:

Any instrument capable of measuring the psychrometric state of air is called a

psychrometer. Two types of psychrometers are commonly used. Each comprises of two

thermometers with the bulb of one covered by a moist wick. The two sensing bulbs are

separated and shaded from each other so that the radiation heat transfer between them

becomes negligible.
  The sling psychrometer: is widely used for measurements involving room air or other
31 applications where the air velocity inside the room is small. The sling psychrometer
consists of two thermometers mounted side by side and fitted in a frame with a handle for
whirling the device through air. The required air circulation (≈ 3 to 5 m/s) over the sensing
bulbs is obtained by whirling the psychrometer (≈ 300 RPM). Readings are taken when
both the thermometers show steady-state readings.

 Aspirated Psychrometer: In the aspirated psychrometer, the thermometers remain

stationary, and a small fan, blower or syringe moves the air across the thermometer bulbs.

 Other types of psychrometric instruments:

(a) Dunmore Electric Hygrometer, (b) DPT meter,

(c) Hygrometer (Using horse’s or human hair)

 CALCULATION OF PSYCHROMETRIC PROPERTIES
 i) Modified Apjohn equation:
32

 ii) Modified Ferrel equation:

 iii) Carrier equation:

 where t = dry bulb temperature, oC

 t’ = wet bulb temperature, oC
 p = barometric pressure
 pv = vapour pressure
 pv’ = saturation vapour pressure at wet-bulb temperature
REFRIGERANTS
Introduction -: a refrigerant is define as a substance that absorbs heat through

vaporisation and loses heat through condensation in the refrigeration system.

Classification of refrigerants -:
1. Primary refrigerants
2. Secondary refrigerants
TYPES OF REFRIGERANTS
 Primary refrigerants are those working
mediums or heat carriers which directly
takes part in the refrigeration system and
cool the substance by the absorption of
latent heat.
 e.g., Ammonia, Carbon dioxide, sulphur
dioxide, alkyl chloride, Freon group
 Secondary refrigerants are those
circulating substances which are first
cooled with the help of primary
refrigerants and are then employed for
cooling purpose.
 These refrigerants cools substances by
absorption of sensible heat.
 e.g., ice, solid carbon dioxide, etc.
SOME COMMONLY USED
REFRIGERANTS -:
 R-10 Carbon tetrachloride (CCL4)
 R-11 Trichloro-monofluoro methane (CCl3F)
 R-12 Dichloro-difuloro methane (CCl2F2)
 R-13 Mono-bromo trifuloro methane (CBrF3)
 R-22 Mono chloro difuloro methane (CHCLF2)
 R-100 Ethyl chloride (C2H5Cl)
DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF AN IDEAL
REFRIGERANT
Thermodynamic properties :
1) low boiling point
2) Low freezing point
3) High latent heat of vaporisation
4) High saturation temperature
Chemical properties :
5) non-toxicity
6) Non-flammable and non-explosive
7) Non-corrosiveness
8) Chemical stability in reacting
 Physical properties :

1) Low specific volume of vapour

2) Low specific heat
3) High thermal conductivity
4) Low viscosity

 Other properties :

1) Availability and low cost

2) Ease of handling
3) High C.O.P
4) Low power consumption per tonne of refrigeration
CONCLUSION
 In Vapour compression system
 In vapour absorption system

 energy supplied is low,

 energy supplied is high,

 wear and tear is more

 wear and tear is less,

 performance of part load is

 system not affected by variation
poor of load,

 leakage of refrigerant more

 no chance of leakage of
chances and refrigerant,

 liquid traces in suction line

 no damage to the compressor.
may damage the compressor
Thank you