Chapter 5: Errors in Chemical

Analysis
 Overview
• Mean & Median
• Accuracy & Precision
• Types of Errors in Data
– Random Errors
– Systematic Errors
• A Mean Calculation Using Excel
 Mean & Median
• Mean is arithmetic average of data set; evaluated as follows:
Mean = Σ Xi / N

• Median is the middle value of a data set when the data are
arranged according to increasing or decreasing value

– Odd numbered Data Set: Median easily picked

– Even numbered Data Set: Take mean of middle pair

– Review Example 5.1

Fig 5-1, p.91
 Accuracy & Precision
• Accuracy is the closeness of a measured value Xi to the true
or accepted value Xt

• Often expressed as either absolute error or relative error

(percent, parts per thousand, or parts per million)

Absolute Error (E) = Xi - Xt

Relative Error (Er) = ((Xi - Xt ) / Xt ) * 100%

 Accuracy & Precision
• Precision describes the reproducibility of measurements
(closeness of results to others) obtained in exactly the same
way.

• Three terms widely used to describe precision include

standard deviation, variance, and coefficient of variation. All
are functions of deviation from the mean.

Deviation from Mean (di) = |Xi – Mean |

Fig 5-2, p.93
Fig 5-3, p.94
p86
p86
 Types of Errors in Data
• Random Errors (Indeterminate Errors) affect
measurement of precision.

• Systematic Errors (Determinate Errors) affect

accuracy of results.

• Gross Errors occur as a result of human error and

often lead to outliers (results that differ markedly
from all other data in a set of replicate
measurements.
 Types of Errors in Data
• Systematic Errors have a definite value and an
assignable cause, and are of the same magnitude for
replicate measurements made in the same way.

– Systematic errors lead to bias in measurement results. Bias

can be negative or positive in sign.
 Types of Errors in Data
• Three Types of Systematic Errors

– Instrument errors
– Method errors
– Personal errors
 Types of Errors in Data
• Systematic Errors may be either constant or
proportional.

– Constant errors are independent of the size of the sample

being analyzed.

– Proportional errors decrease or increase in proportion to

the sample size.
 Types of Errors in Data
• Detection of Systematic Errors

– Instrument errors resolved through calibration of equipment.

– Personal errors minimized by exercising care and self-discipline.

– Method errors are the hardest to overcome; some ideas to overcome

this one include using standard reference materials, independent
analysis, running blank determinations, etc.
p91
 Excel Exercise 3: A Mean Calculation
• Construct the following in Microsoft Excel
p.100
p.101
p.102
p.102
 Suggested Exercises
• HW Set 4: 5.1, 5.5, 5.8, 5.12