CHAPTER 1

 
THE ELEMENTS OF FIRE
 
FIRE
a rapid, self-sustaining oxidation process accompanied by the evolution
of heat and light of varying intensity an active chemical reaction that
takes place between fuel, heat and oxygen in the form of light and
noticeable heat a chemical reaction; the rapid oxidation of a fuel
producing heat and light an oxidation taking place with a rate rapid
enough to produce heat and light
 
TECHNOLOGY
the branch of knowledge that deals with industrial arts and sciences
the application of such knowledge that is used to produce the material
necessity of society
ELEMENTS OF FIRE OR TRIANGLE OF FIRE
 
FUEL
anything that will burn when heated with sufficient oxygen
 
OXYGEN
aids in combustion; comes from the atmosphere we breath; the
atmosphere contains: 21% oxygen, 78% nitrogen and 1% impurities
HEAT
source of ignition
TRIANGLE OF FIRE
For many years, the fire triangle (oxygen, fuel and heat) was taught as
the components of fire. While this simple example is useful, it is NOT
technically correct.

TETRAHEDRON OF FIRE
a geometric representation of what is required for fire to exist, namely,
fuel, an oxidizing agent, heat, and an uninhibited chemical reaction
FIRE TETRAHEDRON
 
• Oxygen (oxidizing agent)
• Fuel
• Heat
• Self-sustained chemical reaction
 
Each component of the tetrahedron must be in place for combustion to
occur. Remove one of the four components and combustion will not
occur. If ignition has already occurred, the fire is extinguished when one
of the components is removed from the reaction.
OXYGEN (Oxidizing Agent)
a colorless, odorless gas and one of the compositions of air which is
approximately 21% percent by volume
Oxygen sources: Oxygen requirements:
1. 21% of normal oxygen 1. 12% no fire
2. 78% nitrogen 2. 14% flash point
3. 1% other gases 3. 21% fire point
FUEL
the material or substance being oxidized or burned in the combustion
process.
 
Fuel sources
1. Solid
- molecules are closely packed together
2. Liquid
- molecules are loosely packed
3. Gas
- molecules are free to move
 
HEAT
the energy component of the fire tetrahedron
when heat comes into contact with a fuel, the energy supports the
combustion reaction
heat energy is measured in units of Joules (J), however it can also be
measured in Calories (1 Calorie = 4.184 J) and BTU's (1 BTU = 1055 J)
TEMPERATURE
- a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared
to a reference point
- a measure of the degree of molecular activity of a material compared
to a reference point
- measured in degrees Farenheit or degrees Celsius
 
º Cº F Response
37 98.6 Normal human oral/body temperature
44 111 Human skin begins to feel pain
48 118 Human skin receives a first degree burn injury
55 131 Human skin receives a second degree burn injury
62 140 A phase where burned human tissue becomes
numb
72 162 Human skin is instantly destroyed
100 212 Water boils and produces steam
140 284 Glass transition temperature of polycarbonate
230 446 Melting temperature of polycarbonate
250 482 Charring of natural cotton begins
300 572 Charring of modern protective clothing fabrics
begins
600 1112 Temperatures inside a post-flashover room
fire
 
Types of Energy (common sources of heat)
• Chemical Energy
• Electrical Energy
• Nuclear Energy
• Mechanical Energy
1. CHEMICAL ENERGY
the most common source of heat in combustion reactions
 
When any combustible is in contact with oxygen, oxidation occurs. The
reaction of this process results in the production of heat.
ex. Heat generated from burning match, self-heating (spontaneous
heating)
 
2. ELECTRICAL ENERGY
- can generate temperature high enough to ignite any combustible
material near the heated area
 
Examples:
• over current or overload
• arcing
• sparking
• static
• lightning
3. NUCLEAR ENERGY
generated when atoms either split apart (fission) or combine (fusion)
Ex.
1. fission heats water to drive steam turbines and produce electricity
2. solar energy is a product of a fusion reaction
4. MECHANICAL ENERGY
an energy created by friction and compression
Heat of friction - the movement of two surfaces against each other,
thus producing sparks
Heat of compression - heat is generated when a gas is compressed in a
container or cylinder
SELF-SUSTAINED CHEMICAL REACTION

Combustion is a complex reaction that requires a fuel (in the gaseous or

vapor state), an oxidizer, and heat energy to come together in a very
specific way. Once flaming combustion or fire occurs, it can only
continue when enough heat energy is produced to cause the continued
development of fuel vapors or gases. Scientists call this type of reaction
a “chain reaction”.
A chain reaction is a series of reactions that occur in sequence with the
result of each individual reaction being added to the rest.
FIRE DEVELOPMENT
 
When the four components of the fire tetrahedron come together,
ignition occurs. For a fire to grow beyond the first material ignited, heat
must be transmitted beyond the first material to additional fuel packages.
 
STAGES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF FIRE
1. Ignition
2. Growth
3. Flashover
4. Fully-developed
5. Decay
1. IGNITION
Describes the period when the four elements of the fire tetrahedron
come together and combustion begins
2. GROWTH
Shortly after ignition, a fire plume begins to form above the burning fuel.
As the plume develops, it begins to draw or entrain air from the
surrounding space into the column.
3. FLASHOVER
The transition between the growth and the fully developed fire stages
and is not a specific event such as ignition. During flashover, conditions in
the compartment change very rapidly as the fire changes from one that
is dominated by the burning of the materials first ignited to one that
involves all of the exposed combustible surfaces within the compartment.
4. FULLY-DEVELOPED
Occurs when all combustible materials in the compartment are
involved in the fire
 
5.DECAY
As the fire consumes the available fuel in the compartment, the rate of
heat released begins to decline.
 
THREE (3) STAGES OF FIRE
1. Incipient phase
2. Free burning phase
3. Smoldering
1. INCIPIENT STAGE
- initial stage of fire
 
Characteristics
- normal room temperature
- oxygen plentiful
- thermal updraft rise accumulates at higher point
- temperature at 1000 F
- Producing C02, CO, SO2, water and other gases
 
2. FREE BURNING PHASE
- a phase of burning in which materials or structures are burning in
the presence of adequate oxygen
Characteristics
- fire has involved more fuel
- oxygen supply has depleted
- heat accumulates at upper area
- temperature exceeds 1,330 F
- area is fully involved
 
3. SMOLDERING PHASE
- final phase of burning wherein flame ceases but dense smoke and
heat completely fill the confined room
 
 CHAPTER 2
MODES OF HEAT TRANSFER
 
Heat is by-product of combustion that is of significant importance to
the firefighter. It is heat that causes fire to sustain its combustion and,
more important, to extend. When heat given off as a product of
combustion is exposed to an unheated substance, certain changes
occur that can make the new substance a contributing factor in
extending a fire.
 
1. CONDUCTION
- heat transfer within solids or between contacting solids
 
When a hot object transfers its heat, conduction has taken place. The
transfer could be to another object or to another portion of the same
object. As we have discovered and will be constantly reinforced about,
combustion occurs on the molecular level. When an object heats up,
the atoms become agitated and begin to collide with one another. A
chain reaction of molecules and atoms, like wave energy, occurs and
causes the agitated molecules to pass the heat energy to areas of non-
heat.
2. CONVECTION
- heat transfer by the movement of liquids or gasses
 
Air that is hotter than its surroundings rises. Air that is cooler than its
surroundings sinks. Air is made up of many molecules floating about freely.
Even so, it still has weight. Some molecules are made up of the same element.
For example, oxygen in its natural state will combine with another oxygen atom
to form a stable oxygen molecule. In a given volume, air at a given temperature
will have the same density. When heated, as in conduction theory, the
molecules become agitated and begin to collide with one another. In the
process, the molecules are demanding more space to accommodate the
vibrations and they push into one another as they seek that space. When that
happens, the density of a given volume is reduced and it weighs less. Because it
weighs less, it rises until it reaches equilibrium-the level at which the weight is
the same as the surrounding atmosphere.
3. RADIATION
- heat transfer by electromagnetic waves
 
The last form of heat transfer occurs by radiation. As we have already
seen, heat energy can be transmitted directly when molecules collide
with one another and cause the waves of heat energy to travel.
 
4. FLAME CONTACT
-heat may be conducted from one body to another by direct flame
contact
PROPERTIES OF FIRE
Physical properties
Chemical Properties
 
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a. Specific gravity
- the ratio of the weight of a solid or substance to the weight of an
equal volume of water
b. Vapor density
- the weight of volume of pure gas compared to weight of a volume
of dry air at the same temperature and pressure
c. Vapor pressure
- the force exerted by the molecules on the surface of the liquid at the
equilibrium
d. Temperature
- the measure of the thermal degree of the agitation of molecules of a
given substance; the measure of the molecular activity within the substance
e. Boiling Point
- the constant temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid is
equal to the atmospheric pressure
f. Ignition temperature
- the minimum temperature to which the substance in the air must be
heated in order to initiate or cause self-contained combustion without
addition of heat from outside sources
g. Fire point
- the temperature at which the material will give off ample vapors to
keep burning
h. Flash point
- the temperature at which the material is not hot enough to keep
burning, but still gives off enough vapors to cause a flame across the
surface
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
a. Endothermic reaction
- are changes whereby energy is absorbed or is added before the
reaction takes place
b. Exothermic reaction
- reactions or changes that releases or give off energy
c. Oxidation
- a chemical change in which combustible material and an oxidizing
material react
d. Combustion or flame
- the manifestation of fire is in its gas-phased combustion; matter that
is produced by fire.
 
Material Ignition Temperature
F C
Gasoline 536 280
Kerosene 410 210
Turpentine 488 253
Paper 842 450
Wood 489 254
Coal 750 400
CLASSIFICATIONS OF FIRE
 
I. BASED ON CAUSE
a. Natural fire/ providential
b. Accidental fire
c. Intentional Fire/Incendiary
d. Undetermined
 
A. NATURAL FIRE
- involves fires without direct human intervention
Examples:
- Earthquake
- Typhoon
- Lightning
- Spontaneous combustion arising from the storage of combustible
materials in poorly ventilated places
- Explosion from petroleum products, alcohol and other substances
- Sun rays focused on glasses which may serve as a convex lens
 
B. ACCIDENTAL FIRE
- Carelessly discarded cigarettes
- Careless disposition of readily combustible materials
- Poorly managed or defective heating facilities
- Overheating, spark and electrical defects
- Overload electric circuits/ Octopus connections
- Children playing matches
- Use of candles
C. INCENDIARY FIRE
- is one deliberately set under circumstances in which the person
knows that the fire should not be set
 
D. UNDETERMINED FIRE CAUSE
- whenever the cause cannot be proven, the proper classification is
undetermined
II. BASED ON BURNING FUEL
 
CLASS A
ordinary solid materials such as wood, paper, fabrics, etc.
2. this will be indicated by deep cited fire, leaves ashes and embers
(glowing coals) after burning
 
CLASS B
flammable liquids such as gasoline, lube oil, kerosene, paint thinner, etc.
 
CLASS C
electrical appliances; causes electric shock
CLASS D
metal fire such as magnesium (white element burning with dazzling
light), sodium (a silver white metallic element), etc.; creates violent
reaction
 
CLASS E
flammable gases such as LPG, LNG, etc.; also creates violent reaction
 
Fire Classes in the United Kingdom and Europe
A – ordinary combustibles
B – flammable or flammable liquids
C – flammable gasses
D – combustible metals
E – (this class is no longer existing in Europe)
F – cooking oils and fats
Fire Classes in Australia and Asia
A – every combustibles
B – combustible or combustible liquids
C – combustible gasses
D – combustible metals
E – electrical equipment
F – cooking fats and oils
Fire Classes in the U.S.A. (NFPA)
A – regular combustibles
B – flammable liquids and gasses
C – electrical appliances
D – combustible metals
K – cooking oils and fats
 
FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT
 
EXTINGUISHING AGENT
Class A – water (all agents)
Class B – foam/carbon dioxide (all agents)
Class C – carbon dioxide/powder (never use water, soda acid and foam)
Class D – special powder
Class E – all agents
METHODS OF EXTINGUISHMENT
1. COOLING – heat absorption.
2. SEPARATION – the removal of the fuel.
3. SMOTHERING – by expelling oxygen
4. Inhibition or the interruption of chemical chain reaction
 
Strategies Used in Firefighting:
Locate the fire
Confine the fire
Extinguish the fire
Exposures
Factors to Consider in Extinguishment:
Time
Weather (temperature, humidity, wind)
Fire ( ex. Extent, location, construction, contents involved)
Occupancy
Ventilation (used for clearing the building of smoke and gases)
Types of Ventilation:
Vertical ventilation - must be worked from the top to bottom
Cross or horizontal ventilation - used if gases have not reached the higher
level through the opening of windows
Mechanical force ventilation - a method whereby a device such as smoke
ejector is utilized to remove faster excessive heat and dense smoke
Factors to determine the location for the opening:
• Location of intensity of fire
• Highest point on the roof
• Direction of wind
• Existing exposure
• Extent of fire
• Obstruction
ADDITIONAL BASIC TACTICS USED IN EXTINGUISHING FIRE
• RESCUE - any action taken by the firefighters to remove occupants/
persons from building/ hazards to a safety place
• OVERHAUL - a complete and detailed checked of the structures and
materials involved in the fire to make sure that every spark and ember
has been extinguished and to have assurance against re-ignition
• SALVAGE - an action taken by the firefighters in preventing excessive
damage by fire, water with the use of salvage cover or by removing
materials out from the burning building
 CHAPTER 3
TYPES OF FIRE EXTINGUISHER
"Extinguisher" redirects here. Extinguisher may also refer to a candle
snuffer.

A fire extinguisher is an active fire protection device used to extinguish

or control small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not intended
for use on an out-of-control fire, such as one which has reached the
ceiling, endangers the user (i.e., no escape route, smoke, explosion
hazard, etc.), or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire brigade.
Typically, a fire extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure
vessel containing an agent that can be discharged to extinguish a fire.
Fire extinguishers manufactured with non-cylindrical pressure vessels
also exist but are less common.
There are two main types of fire extinguishers: stored-pressure and cartridge-
operated. In stored pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as
the firefighting agent itself. Depending on the agent used, different propellants are
used. With dry chemical extinguishers, nitrogen is typically used; water and foam
extinguishers typically use air. Stored pressure fire extinguishers are the most
common type. Cartridge-operated extinguishers contain the expellant gas in a
separate cartridge that is punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to
the extinguishing agent. This type is not as common, used primarily in areas such
as industrial facilities, where they receive higher-than-average use. They have the
advantage of simple and prompt recharge, allowing an operator to discharge the
extinguisher, recharge it, and return to the fire in a reasonable amount of time.
Unlike stored pressure types, these extinguishers use compressed carbon dioxide
instead of nitrogen, although nitrogen cartridges are used on low temperature (-
60 rated) models. Cartridge operated extinguishers are available in dry chemical
and dry powder types in the U.S. and in water, wetting agent, foam, dry chemical
(classes ABC and B.C.), and dry powder (class D) types in the rest of the world.
Wheeled fire extinguisher and a sign inside a parking lot. Fire
extinguishers are further divided into handheld and cart-mounted (also
called wheeled extinguishers). Handheld extinguishers weigh from 0.5
to 14 kilograms (1.1 to 30.9 lb), and are hence, easily portable by hand.
Cart-mounted units typically weigh more than 23 kilograms (51 lb).
These wheeled models are most commonly found at construction sites,
airport runways, heliports, as well as docks and marinas.
To deal with the multitude of different fire classes, a range of fire
extinguishers have been developed. Please click on the type of
extinguisher, this will display more information about that extinguisher
type.

a) Water
b) Water Spray
c) Water Mist (Dry Water Mist)
d) Dry Powder (Multi-Purpose)
e) Dry Powder (Special Powders)
f) Foam (AFFF)
g) Carbon Dioxide
h) Wet Chemical
i) Fire Blanket
j) Hose Reel
k) Fire Bucket
l) Water Extinguisher
m) Signal Red
Best For
Fires involving organic solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper,
plastics, coal etc.
Danger
Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances.
How to Use
Point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the
area of the fire. Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
How it Works
Water has a great cooling effect on the fuel’s surface and thereby
reduces the pyrolysis rate of the fuel.
Water Spray Extinguisher (Water with additive)
Water Extinguisher Signal Red
 
Best For
 
Fires involving organic solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper, plastics, coal etc. These
offer significantly improved firefighting capability compared to traditional jet type water
fire extinguishers. Available in 3 and 6 liters.
 
Danger
Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances.
 
How to Use
Point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the area of the fire.
Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
How it Works
Water has a great cooling effect on the fuel’s surface and thereby
reduces the pyrolysis rate of the fuel. Instead of a jet nozzle, a spray
nozzle is used, with a higher pressure, which creates a fine spray. This
allows for a given quantity of water to have a considerable increase in
the surface area presented to the fire. This makes extinguishing more
efficient by more rapid extraction of heat, the formation of steam etc.
They can also contain surfactants which help the water penetrate deep
into the burning material which increases the effectiveness of the
extinguisher.
Water Mist Extinguisher (‘Dry’ Water Mist)
Signal Red on a White Background
 
Best For
 
The first broad-spectrum extinguisher to tackle A, B, C rated risks as well as fats
and deep fat fryers (Class F). Models with a dielectric test to 35k Volts can be
safely used on electrical fires (up to 1000 Volt) if a safety distance of 1m is
adhered to, as their mist (de-ionized water) does not conduct electricity and the
extinguisher does not normally form puddles, which could conduct electricity.
The Ultra Fire water mist extinguishers also contain only de-ionized water which
cannot carry an electric current.
 
 
Danger
Water mist extinguishers are safe for discharge on all fire classifications bar Class
D blazes.
 
How to Use
Point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the area of the
fire. Ensure that all areas of the fire are out. The fire draws the microscopic water
particles into the fire.
 
How it Works
Water is turned into microscopic particles in the supersonic nozzle. The water
mist is drawn to the fire where it cools and suffocates the fire. The mist also
forms a safety barrier between user and fire, which keeps some of the heat back.
• Powder Extinguisher (Multi-Purpose)
• Dry Powder Extinguisher Blue
•  
• Best For
• Can be used on fires involving organic solids, liquids such as grease, fats, oil, paint, petrol, etc , but
not on-chip or fat pan fires. Can also be used on gas fires.
•  
• Danger
• Safe on live electrical equipment, although does not penetrate the spaces in equipment easily
and the fire may re-ignite. This type of extinguisher does not cool the fire very well and care should
be taken that the fire does not flare up again.
•  
• The smoldering material in deep-seated fires such as upholstery or bedding can cause the fire
to start up again. Do not use on a domestic chip or fat pan fires. There is a danger of inhalation if
powder extinguishers are used within buildings. Due to this, and the potential for the powder to
impair vision, powder extinguishers are no longer recommended for use within enclosed spaces.
•  
• How to Use
•  
•Point the jet or discharge horn at the base of the flames and, with a rapid sweeping motion,
drive the fire towards the far edge until all the flames are out. If the extinguisher has a hand control,
wait until the air clears and if you can still see the flames, attack the fire again.
•  
• How it Works
•Similarly, to almost all extinguishing agents the powder acts as a thermal ballast making the
flames too cool for the chemical reactions to continue. Some powders also provide a minor
chemical inhibition, although this effect is relatively weak. These powders thus provide rapid
knockdown of flame fronts, but may not keep the fire suppressed.
•  
• Dry Powder Extinguisher (Special Powders)
• Extinguishers Blue
•  
• Best For
•These specialist powder extinguishers are designed to tackle fires
involving combustible metals such as lithium, magnesium, sodium or
aluminum when in the form of swarf or powder.
• There are three special powders based on graphite, copper and sodium
chloride.
• 
• Danger
•Do not allow water to come in contact with the burning metal and the
powder must be gently applied. Sodium Chloride is not recommended for
Lithium.
• How to Use
•The lance enables the user to tackle fires at a safe distance. The low-
velocity applicator reduces the energy of the jet allowing the powder to
gently smother the surface of the burning material thus avoiding scattering
the high-temperature particles and stimulating the formation of a crust. The
method of application is completely different from a standard extinguisher
and user training is required. They are not suitable for use on live electrical
fires.
• 
• How it Works
•This extinguisher works by forming a crust which insulates the metal to
prevent access to other combustible material nearby and smothering the
fire to prevent oxygen from the atmosphere reacting with the metal
• Foam Extinguisher (AFFF)
• Fire Extinguishers Cream
•  
• Best For
• Fires involving solids and burning liquids, such as paint and petrol but not suitable for chip or fat pan
fires. Safe on fires caused by electricity if tested to 35kV (dielectric test) and a 1m safety distance is
adhered to.
•  
• Danger
• Do not use on-chip or fat pan fires.
•  
• How to Use
• For fires involving solids, point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the area of
the fire. Ensure that all areas of the fire are out. For fires involving liquids, do not aim the jet straight
into the liquid. Where the liquid on fire is in a container, point the jet at the inside edge of the
container or on a nearby surface above the burning liquid. Allow the foam to build up and flow across
the liquid.
•  
• How it Works
•They are mainly water based, with a foaming
agent so that the foam can float on top of the
burning liquid and break the interaction between
the flames and the fuel surface.
• Carbon Dioxide Extinguisher
• CO2 Fire Extinguishers Black
• 
• Best For
• Live electrical equipment, although it allows re-ignition of hot plastics. Now
mainly used on large computer servers, although care has to be taken not to
asphyxiate people when using the extinguisher in small server rooms.
• 
• Danger
• Do not use on-chip or fat pan fires, as it can carry burning fat out of the
container. This type of extinguisher does not cool the fire very well and you need
to ensure that the fire does not start up again. Fumes from CO2 extinguishers can
asphyxiate if used in confined spaces: ventilate the area as soon as the fire has
been controlled. Only use CO2 extinguishers with frost-free horns, as the hand
holding the horn can otherwise be frozen to the horn, as the gas gets very cold
during the discharge.
• How to Use
• The discharge horn should be directed at the base of
the flames and the jet kept moving across the area of the
fire.
• 
• How it Works
• Carbon dioxide extinguishers work by suffocating the
fire. Carbon dioxide displaces oxygen in the air. However,
once discharged, the CO2 will dissipate quickly and allow
access for oxygen again, which can re-ignite the fire.
• 
• Wet Chemical Extinguisher
• Canary Yellow
•  
• Best For
•Wet chemical fire extinguishers are ideal for Class F fires, involving
cooking oils and fats, such as lard, olive oil, sunflower oil, maize oil, and
butter.
• 
• Danger
•Check manufacturer’s instructions for suitability of use. These
extinguishers are usually not recommended for class B fires such as
petrol, although Gloria has produced a 3 ltr wet chemical extinguisher with
B rating.
• 
• How to Use
•Apply the wet chemical using the extended applicator in slow circular movements, which gives
a gentle, yet highly effective application. Apply the fine spray onto the burning fat until the surface of
the burning cooking oil changes into a soapy-like substance which prevents re-ignition. The gentle
application helps to prevent burning oil splashing out of the container. Make sure that you empty the
entire content of the wet chemical extinguisher onto the oil/fat, as the fire can re-ignite otherwise.
•  
• How it Works
• Most class F extinguishers contain a solution of potassium acetate, sometimes with some
potassium citrate or potassium bicarbonate. The extinguishers spray the agent out as a fine mist.
The mist acts to cool the flame front, while the potassium salts saponify the surface of the burning
cooking oil, producing a layer of foam over the surface. This solution thus provides a similar
blanketing effect to a foam extinguisher, but with a greater cooling effect. The saponification only
works on animal fats and vegetable oils so most class F extinguishers cannot be used for class B
fires. The misting also helps to prevent splashing the blazing oil.
•  
•Tests have established that a 6-liter wet chemical fire extinguisher with a 75F rating can deal
with a fat fire of maximum 0.11 m2 surface area.
• Fire Blanket

. smothering
•Fire Blankets Fire blankets are made of fire-resistant materials. They are useful for
small pan fires or for wrapping around a person whose clothing is on fire. Fire
blankets conforming to British Standard BS EN 1869: 1997 are suitable for use in the
home. BS 7944: 1999 is the specification for specialist heavy duty industrial use. Fire
blankets should generally be disposed of after use.
•  
• Best For
• Small pan fires where oil or fat has caught fire and clothing fires.
•  
• Danger
•If the blanket does not completely cover the fire, it will not be able to extinguish the
fire.
• While kite marked fire blankets have been successfully tested on deep fat fryers, modern
frying fats are difficult to extinguish with a fire blanket. We, therefore, recommend wet
chemicals for deep fat fryers.
• How to Use
. •Place carefully over the fire. Keep your hands
shielded from the fire. Do not waft the fire towards
you.
• 
• How it Works
•Smothers the fire and prevents oxygen getting
to the fire.
• Hose Reel

.• Best for
•  

•Fires involving organic solid materials such as wood, cloth, paper, plastics, coal etc.
• Danger
•Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances before the electric supply
has been isolated.
•  
• How to Use
•Point the jet at the base of the flames and keep it moving across the area of the fire.
Ensure that all areas of the fire are out.
•  
• How it Works
•Water has a great effect on cooling the fuel surfaces and thereby reducing the
pyrolysis rate of the fuel.
• Fire Buckets

. • Fire Buckets A simple bucket of water can be used on Class A type of fires
either to supplement a water extinguisher or as a first attack if an extinguisher is not
immediately available.
•  
• It also can be filled with dry sand and used as an absorbing agent or to dam a
flow of flammable liquid. They do have serious disadvantages as they are often
misused, left empty or allowed to be used as a refuse container.
•  
• Best For
• Wood, Cloth, Paper, Plastics, Coal (if filled with water). Spilled flammable liquids
(if filled with sand)
•  
• Danger
• Do not use on burning fat or oil or on electrical appliances before the electric
supply has been isolated.
• How to Use
.• Throw at the base of the flames. Ensure that all areas of
the fire are out.
• 
• How it Works
•Water has a great effect on cooling the fuel surfaces
and thereby reducing the pyrolysis rate of the fuel.
.

CHAPTER 4
FIREMAN LADDER
•  

. •Fire Ladder and Fire Escape devices

designed to bring firemen and their
equipment to the upper stories of buildings
to fight fires and rescue people. The ladders
may be portable or mounted on motor
vehicles; fire escapes are permanently
mounted.
• 
• Portable ladders include folding types (pole ladders),
. extension types (three-section ladders), and aerial types
(hook ladders). A folding ladder opens to a height of
about 3 m. An extension three-section ladder is 4 to 5 m
long when contracted and extends to a length of about
10 m. An aerial ladder is some 4 m long and has a steel
hook used to suspend the ladder from the windowsill of
the next higher story. Among the fire ladders mounted
on motor vehicles are automotive ladders, which can
extend to 16, 30, and 45 m, and elbow-type
automatically raised ladders, which can extend to 18
and 30 m. A turntable monitor is set on the upper parts
of ladders to supply a jet of water.
.
• Fire escapes are permanently
secured to the exteriors of buildings
and are spaced no more than 200 m
apart on very long buildings. When
intended for evacuating people, they
are of suitable width and steepness,
with intermediate landings provided.
.
• Types of ladder
.1.Ground ladders (10 to 55 ft. long)
2.Aerial ladders
• 
• Purposes of ladders
• a. for rescue
• b. to stretch line into a fire building
• c. to provide ventilation by giving access to places that
are hard to reach
• Forms of ground ladders
.
a.Wall
b.Extension
c.Hook or straight ladder
d.Attic ladder
• LADDER TERMINOLOGY
.1.Bed ladder - the lowest section of an extension
ladder
2.Fly ladder - the top section of an extension ladder
3.Butt - the bottom end of a ladder
4.Heel - the part of the ladder that touches the ground
5.Halyard - a rope or cable used to raised the fly
ladder
6.Pawl or dog - the mechanism located at the end of
the fly ladder that locks to the bed ladder
6.Rung - the cross member of the ladder that is used for
. climbing
7.Top or tip - it is the top part of the ladder
8.Hooks - part of a ladder that is used to hook over a roof
peak, sills, or walls where the heel does not rest on a
foundation. (roof type ladders)
10.Stops - made of metal or wood blocks used to prevent
the fly of an extension ladder from extending out further
from the ladder
11.Guides - light metal strips of an extension ladder that
guides the fly ladder while it is being raised or lowered
• 
• Rope Rescue Techniques: Ladder Hinge
.
• In the last few weeks there has been a particular video
circulating through various online firefighter and rescue
groups Rope Rescue Technique-Ladder Hinge that
caught my attention. In the video firefighters are using a
ladder, backboard, and rope to move a patient from a
roof or second floor to the ground. Depending where
you were watching this video there were some great
comments about thinking outside the box and using
alternative methods to raise and lower patients.
• There were a large number of comments that
. were a little deceiving; comments attributed this
rescue technique -- a ladder hinge -- to the fire
department in the video. It's great to see this
technique being used, but by today's standards it
may be considered an old school technique. The
ladder hinge gets overlooked or forgotten about
when so many people are arguing over which
friction device is the best. Depending on your
location in the country or the world this technique
is still taught, relied upon, and used regularly
.
.
CHAPTER 5
ARSON INVESTIGATIVE GUIDE AND
PROCEDURES
•. ARSON
• - the willful and malicious burning of
all kinds of buildings and structures
including personal properties
• INVESTIGATION
.• - an art that deals with the identity and location of the
offender and provides evidence of his guilt in criminal
proceedings
•  
• ELEMENTS OF ARSON
1.Actual burning took place
2.Actual burning is done with malicious intent
3.The actual burning is done by person(s) legally and
criminally liable
• 
• LAW AND JURISPRUDENCE
.
• The law on arson in the Philippines is
covered by Articles 320 to 326 of the
Revised Penal Code, as amended by PD
No. 1613, PD No. 1744, and Sec. 50 Rule
VIII IRR of RA 6975 which provides that the
Bureau of Fire Protection (BFP) shall have
the power to investigate all causes of fires
and, if necessary, file the proper complaint
with the City/Provincial prosecutor who has
jurisdiction over arson cases.
• LAWS ON ARSON
.
• 1.Article 320 – 326 of the Revised Penal
Code
•- defines arson, its forms and penalties
• 2.PD 1613 – the law amending the law on
arson
•- defining the prima facie evidence of
arson
• 3. RA 7659
. • - An Act to Impose Death Penalty on Certain Heinous
Crimes, amending for that purpose the Revised Penal
Code as amended, other special laws, and for other
purposes
• 4. RA 6975 Sec. 54
• - provides that the Fire Bureau shall have the power
to investigate all causes of fires and if necessary file
the proper complaint with the City/Provincial
Prosecutor who has jurisdiction over the case
• What Constitutes Arson?
.
1.Burning
2.Willfulness – means intentional and implies
that the act was done purposely and
intentionally
3.Malice – denotes hatred or ill will or a desire
for revenge; deliberate intention of doing
unjustified harm for the satisfaction of doing
it
4.Motive
. – the moving because which
induces the commission of a crime;
something that leads or influences a
person to do something
5. Intent – the purpose or design with
which the act is done and involves the
will; an essential element of crime.
 •  

•. Why is arson very hard to investigate?

• 
•Arson is one of the most difficult offenses to
investigate because the arsonist can be able to
set a fire and escape undetected. The fire can
consume the scene and destroy much physical
evidence of the offense. Harder forms of
evidence are often buried in debris and grossly
altered in appearance.
• What Constitutes Burning?
.
 The mere fact that a building is scorched or
discolored by heat is not sufficient nor will
bare intention or even an attempt to burn a
house amount to arson, if no part of it is
burned.
 Yet, if there is actual ignition of any part of
the building, arson is committed, although
there be no flame or the fire immediately
goes out of itself.
• To burn means to consume by fire and in
. the case of arson, if the wood is blackened
but no fibers are wasted, there is no
burning, yet the wood need not be in flame
or blaze, and the burning of any part,
however, small is sufficient to constitute
arson, and if the house is charred in a
single place so as to destroy the fibers of
the wood, it is sufficient to constitute arson.
• What is Attempted Arson?
. In attempted arson, it is not necessary that there be a
fire before the crime is committed. No hard and fast
rule is laid down by the law as to the requirements for
attempted arson. The peculiar facts and circumstances
of a particular case should carry more weight in the
decision of the case. Thus, a person intending to burn
a wooden structure, collects some rags, soaks them in
gasoline and places them beside the wooden wall of
the building. When he is about to light a match to set
fire to the rags, he is discovered by another who
chases him away.
• The crime committed is attempted arson,
. because the offender begins the commission
of the crime directly by overacts (placing the
rags soaked in gasoline beside the wooden
wall of the building and lighting a match) but
he does not perform all the acts of execution
(the setting of the fire to the rags) due to the
timely intervention of another who chases
away) the offender.
• What is Frustrated Arson?
. In frustrated arson, the fact of having set fire to
some rags and jute sacks soaked in kerosene oil
and placed near the partition of the entire soil of
an inhabited house, should not be qualified as a
consummated arson, in as much as no part of
the house had begun to burn, although fire would
have started in the said partition had it not been
extinguished on time. The crime committed was
frustrated arson.
• What is Consummated Arson?
. The offender did in fact set fire to the roof of the house
and said house was partially burned. The crime was
consummated arson, notwithstanding the fact that the
fire afterwards extinguished for once it has been
started, the consummation of the crime of arson does
not depend upon the extent of the damage caused.
 Setting fire to the contents of a building constitutes the
consummated crime of setting fire to a building even if
no part of the building was burned.
 • 
.
• Basis of Liability in Arson:
1.Kind and character of the building,
whether of public or private ownership.
2.Its location, whether in an uninhabited
place or in a populated place.
3.Extent of damage caused; and
4.The fact of its being inhabited or not.
• Some of the Arson Evidence that the Investigator
. should seek at the Fire scene are the following:
1.Unusually rapid spread of the fire.
2.Where it originated?
3.Separate fires – when two or more separate fires
break-out within a building, the fire is certainly
suspicious.
4.Unusual odors – the odor of gasoline, alcohol,
kerosene and other inflammable liquids are
indicated by their characteristics and oftentimes,
arsonists are trapped because of this tell-tale signs.
5. Objects that appear to be foreign to the scene such as cans, candles,
.
matches, explosives, electrical appliances such as irons, heating elements,
clocks, radios, flammables, trailers, etc.
6. Charring pattern may indicate fire characteristics. The fact that the fire
feeds on combustible while propagating itself, indicates that the char will
generally be deepest from where the fire originates. When a fire is
extinguished quickly, the charring is only slightly below the surface. Fire
burning for a longer period of time will indicate a char that is deep and
pronounced. These facts are most apparent in the charring of wood as a
fire burns. The charring from fire on woods looks like the hide of a black
alligator. Fire extinguished quickly on wood will show a large alligatoring
pattern that has not penetrated the wood to any extent. Fire burning for a
long period of time on wood will show small alligatoring pattern but the
char will go deep into the wood. The direction of fire can also be taken into
consideration with charring. The exposed side of combustible will have a
deeper char than the unexposed side.
 7. Evidence of forcible entry or lack of same may
. be important depending on the circumstances at
the time of the fire. If the investigator determines
there was no forcible entry and finds that the
building was secured prior to discovery of the fire,
he can reasonably suspect there is possibility that
the person who sets the fire entered the building
with a key. Doors and windows showing signs of
forced entry may point to arson preceded by
burglary or arson by someone without a key to
the premises.
• Motives of Arson
.
• Motive
 Motive is the moving because which induces a person to commit
a crime.
• 
• Is Motive Necessary to be Proven in Criminal Proceedings?
 No. motive is not necessary to be proven in criminal proceedings
but once motive is shown, then intent can easily establish.
 In the crime of arson, the distinction between motive and intent is
clearly defined. INTENT is a material element of arson while
motive is not. INTENT is the purpose of design with which the
act is done and involves the will while MOTIVE is what induces
the criminal.
• Motive Can Be Established By:
.I. Economic Gain
A.Insurance fraud with the assured directly benefiting:
1. Desire to move
• – the premises may no longer be desirable because of the
condition of the building, the fact that the quarters are
outgrown or because of the locality.
2. Disposing of Merchandise
• – the stocks on hand may have lost value by reason of the
seasonal nature of the business, obsolesce, scarcity of
materials necessary to complete the contracts, overstock in
the absence of expected order or a changing market.
3. Property Transaction
. – the business itself may no longer be desirable because of
impending liquidation, settlement of an estate of which it is a part,
the need for cash, prospective failure, the comparatively greater
value of the land, or the comparatively greater value of the
insurance benefits.
B. Profit by the Perpetrator other than the assured:
1. Insurance agents wishing business
2. Insurance adjusters desiring to adjust a loss by securing a
contract
3. Business competitors
4. Persons seeking jobs as protection personnel
5. Salvagers
6. Contractors wishing to rebuild or wreck
• Concealment of Crime:
.
 the arsonists may set fire to a
building in order to conceal a
projected or past crime. He may wish
to divert attention in order to loot the
burning premises or steal in other
places. The burning may be for the
purpose of destroying evidences.
• Punitive Measure:
.• - An arsonist may use fire as a means of
punishing another person for reason of jealousy,
hatred or revenge.
• 
• Intimidation or Economic Disabling:
• - The fire may be used as a weapon of the
saboteurs, the strikers or the racketeers to
intimidate or to disable economically as a step
toward forcing submission to certain demands.
•  

.•Pyromania
– is the uncontrollable impulse of a
person to burn anything without
motivation. Pyromaniacs usually do
not run away from the scene of the
crime, usually alone and feel satisfied
watching the flame
• Types of Pyromaniacs:
.1.Abnormal Youth – Epileptics, imbeciles and
morons may set fire without knowing the
seriousness of the act.
2.The Hero Type – a person may set fire on a
building, subsequently pretends to discover it
and turn in the alarm so that he will appear a
hero to the public. A person may burn a building
and endeavor to achieve spectacular rescue in
order to attract the attention of spectators.
3. Alcoholics and Drug Addicts – persons who
.subject themselves to intense artificial
stimulants such as narcotics sometimes
develop a strong urge toward incendiaries.
4. Sexual Deviates – some sex perverts
derive sexual stimulation from setting a fire
and watching the flame. Frequently, he is
chronic masturbator who stimulates and
enhances his sexual gratification by means of
arson.
• 
.• Public Disturbance
• - an offender may resort to arson as a means of a
public disturbance because a fire attracts people and
destruction causes confusion that gives rise to
attendant problems that divert police attention.
• 
• Vandalism
– is a general term denoting intentional burning to
destroy properties?
• In determining motive, a fire
.
investigator concentrates on three
major factors:
1.Points of origin of the fire
2.Modus operandi of the arsonist
3.Identify of persons who might benefits
from the fire.
• 
• Incendiary Materials
. • -Materials used to start a fire; combustible fuels
• 
1. Arson Chemicals (liquids) – are incendiary materials often used by
arsonists as accelerants. Possess excellent properties. Examples:
alcohol, benzene, petroleum ether, gasoline, kerosene, naptha,
turpentine.
2. Gases as acetylene, butane, CO, ethylene, hydrogen, natural gas,
propane, these are common gases resulting in fires from explosion.
These when mix with air possess excellent in ignition properties and when
present in an enclosed area can lead to explosion.
3. Solids as chlorates, perchlorates, chromates, bichromates, nitrates,
permanganates – are typical families of oxidizing agents which give off
oxygen on decomposition thus aiding in combustion.
• FIRE CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES
.
 
• Republic Act No. 9514
- Approved on December 19, 2008
- Repealed PD 1185
- known as the "Revised Fire Code of the
Philippines of 2008".
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Abatement - Any act that would remove or neutralize a
fire hazard.

• Administrator - Any person who acts as agent of the

owner and manages the use of a building for him.

• Blasting Agent - Any material or mixture consisting of a

fuel and oxidizer used to set off explosives.
.
• Cellulose Nitrate Or Nitro Cellulose - A highly combustible and
explosive compound produced by the reaction of nitric acid with a
cellulose material.

• Cellulose Nitrate Plastic (Pyroxylin) - Any plastic substance,

materials or compound having cellulose nitrate (nitro cellulose) as
base.

• Combustible, Flammable or Inflammable - Descriptive of

materials that are easily set on fire.
• Combustible Fiber - Any readily ignitable and free burning fiber
such as cotton, oakum, rags, waste cloth, waste paper, kapok,
hay, straw, Spanish moss, excelsior and other similar materials
commonly used in commerce.

• Combustible Liquid - Any liquid having a flash point at or above

37.8_C (100_F).

• Corrosive Liquid - Any liquid which causes fire when in contact

with organic matter or with certain chemicals.
.
• Curtain Board - A vertical panel of non-combustible or fire resistive
materials attached to and extending below the bottom chord of the roof
trusses, to divide the underside of the roof into separate compartments so
that heat and smoke will be directed upwards to a roof vent.

• Cryogenic - Descriptive of any material which by its nature or as a result of

its reaction with other elements produces a rapid drop in temperature of
the immediate surroundings.

• Damper - A normally open device installed inside an air duct system which
automatically closes to restrict the passage of smoke or fire.
.
• Distillation - The process of first raising the temperature in
separate the more volatile from the less volatile parts and then
cooling and condensing the resulting vapor so as to produce a
nearly purified substance.

• Duct System - A continuous passageway for the transmission of

air.

• Dust - A finely powdered substance which, when mixed with air in

the proper proportion and ignited will cause an explosion.
.
• Electrical Arc - An extremely hot luminous bridge formed by passage
of an electric current across a space between two conductors or
terminals due to the incandescence of the conducting vapor.

• Ember - A hot piece or lump that remains after a material has

partially burned, and is still oxidizing without the manifestation of
flames.

• Finishes - Materials used as final coating of a surface for

ornamental or protective purposes.
.
• Fire - The active principle of burning, characterized by the heat
and light of combustion.

• Fire Trap - A building unsafe in case of fire because it will burn

easily or because it lacks adequate exits or fire escapes.

• Fire Alarm - Any visual or audible signal produced by a device

or system to warm the occupants of the building or fire fighting
elements of the presence or danger of fire to enable them to
undertake immediate action to save life and property and to
suppress the fire.
.
• Fire Door - A fire resistive door prescribed for openings in fire separation
walls or partitions.

• Fire Hazard - Any condition or act which increases or may cause an

increase in the probability of the occurrence of fire, or which may obstruct,
delay, hinder or interfere with fire fighting operations and the safeguarding
of life and property.

• Fire Lae - The portion of a roadway or public way that should be kept
opened and unobstructed at all times for the expedient operation of fire
fighting units
.
•Fire Protective And Fire Safety Device - Any device intended for the protection of buildings or
persons to include but not limited to built-in protection system such as sprinklers and other
automatic extinguishing system, detectors for heat, smoke and combustion products and other
warning system components, personal protective equipment such as fire blankets, helmets, fire
suits, gloves and other garments that may be put on or worn by persons to protect themselves
during fire.

•Fire Safety Constructions - Refers to design and installation of walls, barriers, doors, windows,
vents, means of egress, etc. integral to and incorporated into a building or structure in order to
minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before the building is evacuated.
These features are also designed to achieve, among others, safe and rapid evacuation of
people through means of egress sealed from smoke or fire, the confinement of fire or smoke in
the room or floor of origin and delay their spread to other parts of the building by means of
smoke sealed and fire resistant doors, walls and floors. It shall also mean to include the
treatment of buildings components or contents with flame retardant chemicals.
.
• Flash Point - The minimum temperature at which any material gives off vapor in
sufficient concentration to form an ignitable mixture with air.

• Forcing -A process where a piece of metal is heated prior to changing its shape
or dimensions.

• Fulminate - A kind of stable explosive compound which explodes by percussion.

• Hazardous Operation/Process - Any act of manufacturing, fabrication, conversion,

etc., that uses or produces materials which are likely to cause fires or explosions.
.
• Horizontal Exit - Passageway from one building to another or through or around
a wall in approximately the same floor level.
• Hose Box - A box or cabinet where fire hoses, valves and other equipment are
stored and arranged for fire fighting.
• Hose Reel - A cylindrical device turning on an axis around which a fire hose is
wound and connected.
• Hypergolic Fuel - A rocket or liquid propellant which consists of combinations of
fuels and oxidizers which ignite spontaneously on contact with each other.
• Industrial Baking And Drying - The industrial process of subjecting materials to
heat for the purpose of removing solvents or moisture from the same, and/or to
fuse certain chemical salts to form a uniform glazing the surface of materials
being treated.
.
• Jumper - A piece of metal or an electrical conductor used to
bypass a safety device in an electrical system.

• Occupancy - The purpose for which a building or portion thereof

is used or intended to be used.

• Occupant - Any person actually occupying and using a building

or portions thereof by virtue of a lease contract with the owner
or administrator or by permission or sufferance of the latter.
.
• Organic Peroxide - A strong oxidizing organic compound which
releases oxygen readily. It causes fire when in contact with
combustible materials especially under conditions of high temperature.

• Overloading - The use of one or more electrical appliances or devices

which draw or consume electrical current beyond the designed
capacity of the existing electrical system.

• Owner - The person who holds the legal right of possession or title to a
building or real property.
.
• Oxidizing Material - A material that readily yields oxygen in quantities
sufficient to stimulate or support combustion.

• Pressurized Or Forced Draft Burning Equipment - Type or burner where

the fuel is subjected to pressure prior to discharge into the combustion
chamber and/or which includes fans or other provisions for the introduction
of air at above normal atmosphere pressure into the same combustion
chamber.

• Public Assembly Building - Any building or structure where fifty (50) or

more people congregate, gather, or assemble for any purpose.
.
• Public Way - Any street, alley or other strip of land unobstructed from the
ground to the sky, deeded, dedicated or otherwise permanently
appropriated for public use.
• Pyrophoric - Descriptive of any substance that ignites spontaneously when
exposed to air.
• Refining - A process where impurities and/or deleterious materials are
removed from a mixture in order to produce a pure element of compound.
It shall also refer to partial distillation and electrolysis.
• Self-Closing Doors - Automatic closing doors that are designed to confine
smoke and heat and delay the spread of fire.
.
• Smelting - Melting or fusing of metallic ores or compounds so as to
separate impurities from pure metals.

• Sprinkler System - An integrated network of hydraulically designed

piping installed in a building, structure or area with outlets arranged in a
systematic pattern which automatically discharges water when activated
by heat or combustion products from a fire.

• Standpipe System - A system of vertical pipes in a building to which fire

hoses can be attached on each floor, including a system by which water
is made available to the outlets as needed.
.
• Vestibule - A passage hall or antechamber
between the outer doors and the interior parts
of a house or building.

• Vertical Shaft - An enclosed vertical space of

passage that extends from floor to floor, as well
as from the base to the top of the building.
INTRODUCTION
 

• Perhaps one of the oldest crimes known is the act of arson. It

creates a severe threat to human life and costs society billions of
pesos per year. Although arson can be defined as the malicious or
fraudulent burning of property, it can also be considered a crime
against both persons and property. Furthermore, it receives little
media attention and is difficult to investigate because evidence is
difficult to locate, and criminal intent is difficult to prove. Unlike,
other “sensational” media events as murder cases and drug raids,
arson is generally considered a low-priority crime even by law
enforcement agencies. Several explanations can be cited for this.
.

• Arson is a time-consuming and difficult

crime to investigate. There is much
misunderstanding about the motives
behind the crime of arson. Few arson
cases lead to arrests and conviction.
.
• Although many of these are committed as
pranks by teenagers, many are the work of
professional arsonists or torches. Arson
considered as the most expensive crime
committed. The high cost and widespread
misunderstanding associated with the crime
of arson can be attributed to several factors,
which include:
.
• A lack of public education concerning the
problem of arson
• A reluctance on the part of prosecutors to file
arson cases that rely on circumstantial evidence
• Quick payments on fire losses by insurance
companies
• A lack of adequate training for investigators
.
• Many arson crime scenes are not recognized or created as
such, and much evidence is destroyed. Despite the fact that
many of the preceding considerations are no longer considered
as great of a problem as they used to be, arson still accounts
for substantial losses to victims. The valuable evidence is
sometimes destroyed during the blaze; it is often difficult to
determine that an arson fire was committed. Other complicating
factors include the fact that there are few, if any, witnesses to
the crime, physical evidence is difficult to locate, and if the
crime is executed properly, it is difficult to determine the fire’s
point of origin. Finally, often it is the victim of the fire who ends
up being the perpetrator of the crime. For these reasons arson
investigation is one of the more difficult crimes to solve.
.
ELEMENTS OF THE CRIME

• As with all crimes, the elements must be

established before a criminal charge can be
levied against the suspect. As with most other
crimes, the elements of arson differ from one
state to the next, but some commonalities do
exist.
.
ELEMENTS OF ARSON

1. A person knowingly damages a building or

property of another, by
2. Starting a fire or explosion or
3. Procuring or causing such property to be
burned
.
LEGAL CATEGORIES

• Arson is also legally characterized by two distinct categories: aggravated

arson and simple arson.
• Aggravated arson is the deliberate burning of property while creating an
imminent danger to human life or risking great bodily harm.
• 
• Conversely, simple arson, a lesser offense, is the burning of property
that does not result in such a risk to human life. In addition to aggravated
and simple arson, most states have recognized that attempted arson is
also punishable under law.
.
THE POLICE AND FIRE ALLIANCE

• Once a fire is determined to have a suspicious origin,

investigators from the local fire and police departments as
well as the victim’s insurance company will become involved
with the case. Problems and confusion will sometimes
unfold if investigators from these agencies fail to understand
differences in their roles. The traditional role of the fire
department is to investigate every fire for cause and origin.
.
When suspicious fires are discovered, however, it is
generally while it is being extinguished. So what, then,
is the role of the firefighter? As a rule, it is threefold:
 
1. To extinguish the fire
2. To investigate the origin of the fire, and
3. To detect the possibility of arson but not to
investigate arson.
.
• Few fire departments in the country have legal authority to
investigate arson fires, although their assistance in such an
investigation is not disputed.

• When the fire investigation becomes a question of who committed

the crime, the matter then becomes a law enforcement concern.
This is critical because once it is determined that law enforcement
should take over the investigation, fire investigators should yield the
crime scene to the arson investigators and respond to them in an
adjunct role. Immediate abeyance of this principle will minimize
confusion and duplication of efforts at the crime scene.
.
• The police investigator has a statutory role in
investigating the arson, as it is a violation of
state or federal law. The principal goal of the
police investigation in an arson case it to
identify the perpetrator(s) of the crime and to
identify and secure sufficient evidence to
prosecute and convict.
.
• Finally, the role of the insurance investigator
is to make a determination as to whether or
not the insurance company owes payment for
the fire loss. The insurance investigator is not
a law enforcement officer. In kind, most
insurance companies state that coverage is
void if the company’s investigation proves
arson or fraud.
.
ARSON INVESTIGATION TECHNIQUES

• The act of arson has been described as a stealthy, cowardly crime that, by
its very nature, leaves very little direct evidence as to the identity of the
arsonist. Many arsonists fail to cover their tracks adequately and may
therefore leave some type of evidence behind. For example, in much
commercial arson, the suspect leaves the paper trail that investigator can
follow. This includes financial records, inflated insurance coverage, little or
no inventory, and excessive debts. In an ideal situation, the arsonist will
either be convicted, through the use of well-documented motives and
opportunity, or might be willing to cooperate with authorities in identifying
accomplices, motives, and prior victims.
.THE PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION
•The preliminary investigation of arson begins basically like many other
crimes, with a thorough examination of the crime scene. Arson does not
have been immediate corpus delecti. It is, therefore, the responsibility of the
investigator to prove that a specific fire did occur and that it was ignited
deliberately. To accomplish this, both direct and circumstantial evidence can
be used to show that the fire was ignited. Such evidence, however, may not
reveal the opportunity or motive of the fire setter. As with most crimes,
motive is important, but the key responsibility of the arson investigator it to
connect the suspect with the crime scene regardless of motive.

•Note: the first step in the arson investigation is to determine the origin of the
fire.
IDENTIFY THE POINT OF ORIGIN
.
• The first step in the investigation is to determine the fire’s point
of origin. This may be the most critical phase of the investigation,
which includes the ruling out of natural or accidental causes. The
materials used in the setting of the fire along with the type of
material being burned, may show a distinct burn pattern. Hence
it is important to identify the point at which the fire originated, for
it is here that most of the physical evidence can be located
indicating a fire of incendiary nature. The fire’s point of origin
may be determined in several ways. The questioning of
witnesses could reveal the necessary information. In addition, an
inspection of the ruins at the fire scene might reveal valuable
evidence.
SEARCH FOR FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS
. 
• A search for liquid accelerants should be conducted at all
arson crime scenes. The identification of liquid accelerants
can generally be used to trace the fire’s point of origin
successfully. Detecting the odor of such accelerants may be
the investigator’s first clue. It is important, therefore, for
investigators to be timely in their arrival at the crime scene
because such odors dissipate quickly. One technique to detect
the presence of flammable liquids is to place suspected
residue in water and look for a thin film to float in the surface
of the water. The formation of this film is reasonable grounds
for suspecting that flammable liquids are present.
OBSERVE THE SPAN OF THE FIRE
.
• Determining the time span of the fire is also the paramount
importance. Although the majority of evidence collection is
conducted at the crime scene, much can be learned simply
by observing the fire. Specifically, physical characteristics of
the fire such as smoke, direction, flames, and distance of
travel are important. Immediately after the fire is
extinguished, samples of debris should be collected that
might have been the material used for starting the fire.
When the rubble is being cleaned up, investigators should
be present to observe any additional evidence that might be
uncovered.
.PHOTOGRAPH THE SCENE

• Complete photographs of the structure should be

taken to help preserve the crime scene for the
courtroom. This makes a record of the condition
of the scene at the time the fire was extinguished.
When taking photos, the investigators should
focus on the location of rags, large amounts of
paper, cans, or empty receptacles that might
have been used in setting the fire.
• IDENTIFY THE SCENE
.
• Finally, identifying the areas of plants (preparations
used to set the fire) and trailers (materials used to
spread the fire) can reveal important clues to the
investigator.
• Plants: These include newspapers, rags, and other
flammable waste material.
• Trailers: Materials used in spreading the fire. These
include gunpowder, rags soaked in flammable liquid,
and flammable liquids such as gasoline, kerosene, and
alcohol.
QUESTION WITNESSES
.
• Witnesses also play an important role in determining causes of the fire
and possible suspects. Questions to be asked of the witnesses include:

•Who are you, and why were you present at the fire?
•What attracted your attention at the fire?

• The witnesses’ observations of the intensity, color, and direction of the

fire may also prove to be of great value. Certainly, the observations of
witnesses should only be viewed as information to give the investigator
a lead as to where to begin looking for evidence. The actual point of
origin, of course, must be determined by a thorough examination of the
premises.
.OBSERVE ALLIGATORING

• The term alligatoring refers to the pattern of

crevices formed by the burning of a wooden
structure. Resembling the skin of an alligator, this
pattern reveals minimum amount of charring, with
alligatoring is large segments, when a fire is
extinguished rapidly. As the fire continues to burn,
the alligatoring will become smaller with charring
becoming deeper.
TYPES OF EVIDENCE IN ARSON CASES
.
1. Evidence of incendiary origin. The basic type of evidence in this
category is physical evidence (e.g., laboratory analysis of fire debris),
expert observation of burn patterns and fire characteristics, and
negative corpus evidence (e.g., elimination of accidental causes).
2. Evidence of motive. In fraud cases, this can involve complex analysis
of financial and property records. Here a distinction can be made
between evidence of a general hostility (e.g., a previous augment) be
important in cases involving a pyromaniac and vandalism, which are
frequently irrational acts.
3. Evidence linking a suspect to the commission of arson. Direct
linkage, such as eyewitness testimony or a confession, is clearly
preferable to circumstantial linkages, which simply reflects opportunity.
.• In a fire crime scene, liquids tend to flow
downward and pool around fixed objects such
as furniture. Their trails, however, are relatively
easy to trace and provide the investigator with
good evidence. An accelerant such as gasoline,
kerosene, or alcohol can be traced from the
point it was spilled to the lowest point of flow. At
times, unburned amounts of these liquids may
be found at low points, where the heat was not
intense enough for ignition.
OTHER CLUES IN ARSON
.
• Many things can indicate that a fire of suspicious
origin was arson. In one example, many fires
were set at the scene, but evidence showed that
each was set independently, with no proof of
spontaneous combustion. Other clues include the
door of flames and smoke, the size of the fire, or
the odors emitted from it.
FLAMES
.
• The color of the flame is noteworthy in the early
phases of a fire. For instance, a blue-orange flame
represents burning alcohol. Certainly, if this
material is not normally stored on the premises,
one could assume that it was used as the
accelerant in the fire. Information as to the
description of the fire can be gained from
witnesses who arrived on the scene before
investigators.
.
SMOKE

• As indicated earlier, smoke can also be of value in determining

what substance was used to start a fire. If smoke can be
observed at the beginning of a fire, before spreading to other
parts of a structure, its color should be noted. For example,
black smoke indicates that the material is made with a
petroleum base. White smoke, conversely, indicates that
vegetable matter is burning, such as straw or hay. In the event
that the structure is completely engulfed in flames, it will be
difficult to make determination as to what materials are being
burned.
. FIRE’S SIZE
THE
 
• Depending on certain factors, such as the time element of the
fire, the size of the fire might give investigators information to
determine an act of arson. For example, structures that are
engulfed in flames in s short period might indicate arson. Fire
investigators recognize that fires of natural origin burn in a
definable pattern. Therefore, fires burning quickly or in a
direction that is not logical will indicate that an accelerant has
been used. Factors to aid the investigator in determining the
normal course or pattern for a fire should consider such
variables as ventilation and contents of the structures.
OLFACTORY EVIDENCE
.
• Distinguishable odors can be emitted from certain
types of fires that might indicate a specific starter,
such as kerosene, gasoline, and alcohol. These
materials ensure that a fire will erupt, and
arsonists expect any evidence of these
accelerants to be destroyed in the fire.
Investigators should, therefore, try to detect any
odors by using their own olfactory senses.
MOTIVATIONS
. OF THE ARSONIST
 
•As a defense attorney once said, “it is not a crime to
have a motive”. Indeed, when an investigator is
successful in the collection of evidence to show the
insured’s participation in the crime, along with evidence
of a motive showing arson as a reasonable alternative
for the arsonist, a prosecutable case may have been
developed. Once it has been determined that the fire
was of incendiary origin, possible motives must be
examined to help the suspect. Motives for arson include:
.
•Profit
•Revenge
•Vandalism
•Crime concealment
•Pyromania
.ARSON FOR PROFIT

• The typical arson-for-profit criminal is the

businessperson who set’s fire to his or her
business or hires a professional arsonist to do
the task. Traditionally, this category of arson
has posed relatively low risk and high profit for
the criminal and has virtually become a
business in and of itself.
.
• Economic gain from this type of arson may be either direct or
indirect. For example, a home or business owner will see a direct
financial gain when the insurance company pays the claim. In
comparison, an employee in a warehouse who starts a fire and
readily extinguishes it might benefit from a raise or promotion for
his her quick and responsible response and effort in saving the
business. As indicated earlier, insurance fraud is a common motive
for arson, perhaps one of the most frequent. A common method of
insurance-related fraud is the purchasing of old run-down building
in inner-city areas. Over a period of several months, shrewd
businesspersons then sell and resell the property.
.• Each of these transactions raises the value of the
property, at least on paper. The properties are then
insured for the highest possible amount. Sometimes the
target of the arsonist is not the building itself but what it
contains. A computer dealer, for example, might remove
any computers and software from his or her business
and leave behind computers and software that are
outdated or in which they have invested too much
money. Once the fire destroyed the building, the
arsonist simply claims the insurance coverage that
covered the burned stock and realizes a market return
on the stock.
.
• Not all arson-for-profit crimes focus on
businesses or are perpetuated by people in
big business. Indeed, high car payments or
excessive mechanical difficulties with an
automobile may compel the ordinary citizen
to automobile arson to collect on the
insurance.
EVIDENCE OF PLANNING OR
PREKNOWLEDGE _

• Removing items of value from the crime scene

before a fire
• Making off-the-cuff remarks or jokes about
burning the structure before the fire
• Increasing insurance coverage or obtaining
coverage for the first time before the fire
• Making unusual changes in business practices
just before the fire (e.g., closing earlier or later,
• Taking obvious actions designed to avoid
suspicion such as book-filing for a banquet that_
the insured has no intention of carrying out, filing
for bankruptcy, and so on.

• Arson for profit can take many forms, so in all

circumstances the conditions surrounding
suspicious fires must be investigated thoroughly
for possible motives. These motives should
include the possibility that arson was used to
cover up another crime, such as homicide or
burglary.
ARSON FOR REVENGE
_
• A high percentage of arsons are attributed to revenge, and
spite. People committing such acts are usually adults who
target both individuals and property. Offenders include jilted
lovers in personal relationships, disgruntled employees, feuding
neighbors, persons who were cheated in business and personal
transactions, and persons motivated by racial prejudice. From
an investigative standpoint, once revenge has been identified
as a possible motive in the fire, the list of suspects can be
narrowed greatly. From here, care should be exercised in
interview and interrogation techniques to extract sufficient and
pertinent information.
ARSON FOR VANDALISM
_
• Not much planning or preparation is required for a fire designated as
vandalism. In addition, readily available materials are commonly
used by the arsonist. As we discuss later, about 95% of the arsons
for vandalism are caused by juveniles, owing in a large part to peer
pressure. Statistics show that most violators in this category are
lower-class youths who choose to commit the crime in the morning
or early afternoon.
• Motives in this category differ from case to case but include
vandalism and revenge. Typically, however, the motive is profit.
Indeed, people who have been unable to contract a professional
arsonist have been known to hire juveniles to commit such acts.
Certainly, the juvenile fire starter will work for much less than the
professional torch.
• Children of many ages have
_
experimented with fire out of curiosity.
Some, according to theorists, are
abused children and set fires as a call
for help. Juvenile fire-setter programs
have sprung up around the country to
identify these problem children and to
deal with their underlying problems.
ARSON FOR CRIME CONCEALMENT
_
• It is common for some criminals to try to
cover up their crimes through the use of a
fire. Murders, burglaries, and other crimes
have been concealed through the
employment of this method. Fire
investigators must consider this as an
alternative motive for all fires.
PYROMANIA
_
• A pyromaniac is a person who is a compulsive fire-starter. This
person is motivated by several aspects of the fire-setting
experience. For example, some experts claim that the
pyromaniac gains sexual stimulation by starting and viewing a
fire. In addition, excitation is achieved by the crowds that gather
and the emergency vehicles that converge on the scene.
Pyromaniacs are impulsive fire-setters; their acts are seldom
planned. Investigators can only examine the routes or paths
that the fires seem to establish. Investigators have revealed that
the pyromaniac may have a sordid past, which includes being
abused as a child, bedwetting, and cruelty to animals.
PROBLEMS IN ARSON INVESTIGATION
_
• Locating witnesses
• Locating and preserving physical evidence
• Determining whether the victim is also the
suspect
• Coordinating the investigation among police, fire,
and insurance agents
• Determining if the fire was arson or had some
other cause
SERIAL FIRESETTERS
_
• Serial criminals of any type pose great concerns for communities and law
enforcement officials alike. The serial arsonist can be defined as one who
sets fire repeatedly. This criminal, however, is at somewhat of an
advantage because expertise in fire investigations is not as common as in
other crimes. The compulsive fire setting can be classified as mass, spree,
and serial.

• Mass arsonist sets three or more fires at the same location.

• Spree arsonists set at three or more separate locations, with no
cooling-off period between them.
• The serial arsonist sets three or more separate fires with a definite
cooling-off period between them. This period may last for days, weeks,
or months.
• According to James (1965) in his article
“Psychological motives for arson” neither sex, _
age, education, intellectual level, nor economic
status in any way limits the possibility of a person
to engage in arson. On the other hand, from a
study of large samples it does appear that
statistically, persons of certain ages with a certain
characteristic are more apt to set fires than are
others.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE FIRE-SETTER
_
• Age: typically, around 17 years of age
• Sex: usually male
• Race: predominantly white
• Intelligence: research indicates that fire-setters are often mentally deficient
• Academic performance: most have a history of poor academic performance
• Rearing environment: most appear to come from unstable home environment
within lower socioeconomic levels
• Social relationship: typically experience difficulties in relationship, especially
with women
• Sexual disturbance: usually associated with sexual perversion
• Fire-setting tends to serve as a sexual substitute
• Motive: most typically, revenge is the underlying motive
• Collection of Liquid Samples for
Accelerant Testing _

• Liquid accelerants may be collected with

a.New syringe
b.Siphoning device
c.Evidence container itself
d.Sterilize cotton balls or gauge pads may
also be used to absorbed the liquid
• Where liquid accelerants are believed to have become trapped in _
porous materials such as concrete floor:
a. Lime
b. Diatomaceous earth
c. Flour

• Collection of liquid evidence absorbed by solid materials including soils

and sand:
a. Scooping
b. Sawing
c. Scraping
d. Core drilling
• Collecting of Solid samples for accelerant testing
• Solid accelerant may be common household_
materials and compounds or dangerous chemicals.
When collecting solid accelerants:
a.The fire investigator must ensure that the solid
accelerant is maintained in physical state in which
is found
b.Some incendiary materials remain Corrosive and
Reactive
c.Ensure the corrosive nature of these residue does
not attack the packaging container
• Collection of Gaseous samples
• Method of Collection: _
a.Use of commercially available mechanical sampling
device
b.Utilization evacuated air sampling cans. These cans are
specifically designed for taking gaseous samples
c.Use of clean glass bottled filled with distilled water.
Distilled water use as it has had most of the impurities
removed from it. This method simply require the
investigator poured the distilled water out of its bottle in
the atmosphere to be sampled. As distilled water leaves
the bottle it is replaced by the gaseous sample
Guide on Interpreting the Damage on Electrical Wire
_
• Collection of Electrical Equipment’s and Components
• Before wires are cut, a photograph should be taken of the wires, and the
both ends of the wire should be tagged and cut so that they can be
identified as one of the following:
a. The device or appliance to which it was attached or from which it was
severed
b. The circuit breaker or fuse number or location to which the wire was
attached or from which it was severed
c. The wire’s path or the route it took between the device and the circuit
protector,
electrical switches, receptacles, thermostats, relays, junction boxes,
electrical distribution panels, and similar equipment and components are
often collected as physical evidence.
 _

THAT’S ALL, THANK YOU!