Tulane University

School of PH&TM
Global
Environmental Health Sciences
 Environmental Microbiology
 Lecture Outline

 Role of Microorganisms in the Environment

– Algae, Fungi, Viruses and Bacteria
 Microbial growth
– Optimum conditions : pH, Oxygen,
Temperature, Nutrients,
– Microbial Growth Curve
 Microorganisms in Water
 Microorganisms in Food
 Microorganisms in Waste
 Microorganisms in Soil, the Nitrogen, Sulfur and
Carbon Cycles
 Management of Microorganisms in Health care
facilities
 *Control of Nosocomial Infections
*CDC Manual for Infections
*Universal Precautions
*Disinfection techniques
*Sterilization


 Environmental Microbiology

ALGAE FUNGI BACTERIA

Chlorella Basidiomycete Gram Negative Bacilli
Algae
Algae
 Algae
 Environmental Benefits
 Algae uses photosynthesis to capture sunlight
energy and carbon dioxide to produce oxygen
and carbohydrates. It grows so quickly and can
produce 15-50 times more Biofuel per acre
than any other crop such as soy beans and corn

Food for humans (sea weed) and fish.

 Algae-Based BioFuel

 Algae a new energy source that has been

getting a lot of attention lately. Certain
types of algae contain natural oils that can
be readily distilled into a vegetable oil or a
number of petroleum-like products that
could serve as drop-in replacements for
gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.
National Algae Association
 Benefits of Algae

It can thrive in nutrient poor environment .

Algae farms can be located near carbon
dioxide producing industries and help clean
the air by utilizing carbon dioxide to grow.
Algae can grow in fresh and salt water , in
sewage and the high quality protein which
can be harvested and converted to livestock
feed
 Algae
 Environmental Impact
– Oxygen depletion
– Clogging water filters
– Algal Blooms/Eutrophication
– Color, taste and odors in Drinking water
– Red tide caused by Dinoflagellates (Algae), produce
toxins
 FUNGI
Basidiomycete
Fungi
Bacteria
 Bacteria

Salmonella Vibrio cholera

Diplococci Spirochetes
 Microbial Growth

Factors:
Temperature
Oxygen
pH
Moisture
Osmotic Pressure
Food
 Growth Factors(conti.)
Temperature

Cryophilic < 20 0 C

Mesophilic 20 – 45 0 C

Thermophilic 46 - 65 0 C

Thermoduric > 66 0 C
 Growth Factors (conti.)
Oxygen

Oxygen:
Aerobic: requires free
Oxygen
Anaerobic : combined oxygen
Facultative : free or combined
pH
Optimum pH 6.5-8.5
Moisture
Osmotic Pressure
Food
 Growth Curve

 Lag phase
 Log phase
 Stationary phase
 Decline phase
 GROWTH CURVE

7
6
Number of organisms

5
4
3

2
1

0 2.5 5 7.5 10 12.5 15

Time
Microorganisms In Water

Water Contamination
Water Treatment:
Filtration: slow sand filters
Rivers and Stream and ponds
Microorganisms In Wastewater

Biological Treatment of Sewage

activated sludge
trickling filters
biodiscs
Biological Treatment of solid waste
Biological Treatment of toxic chemicals
Microorganisms In Food

Food Contamination:
diseases
disinfection
pasteurization
sterilization
Food Industry: cheese, fermentation
 Microorganisms in Soil

Most are present in the top 3 inches

Aerobic, anaerobic and facultative
Degrade and in many cases detoxify toxic
chemicals.
Sulfur, nitrogen and carbon cycles
Sediment microbial population .
 THE NITROGEN CYCLE
Loss of NH3 into
Complex the Atmosphere
Nitrogenous
Compounds Decomposition
Animal in
Metabolism by Microorganisms
Animals
in the Soil
Complex
Nitogen Decomposition and Ammonia Industries,
Nitrogenous
Fixation by Reduction of Nitrogenous (NH3) commercial
Compounds
Azotabacter and Compounds to Ammonia in the fertilizer,
in
Soil
Rhizobium Plants by Organisms in the Soil volcanic

N
TIO
ICA
Oxidation by

SIF
Plant Microorganisms

O
ITR
Metabolism (Nitrosomonas)

DEN
in the Soil
Nitric DENITRIFICATION Nitrous
Acid Salts Acid Salts
(NaNO3) (NaNO2)

Oxidation by
Microorganims
(Nitrobacter)
in the Soil

LIGHTNING
 THE SULFUR CYCLE

Organic Compounds
(cystine, methionine, glutathione,etc)
in plants and animals
Food of plants
and animals
Putrefactive Sulfate-reducing
microorganisma microorganims :
(use S as H-acceptor) Desulfovibrio, etc.
H2SO4

Sulfur oxidation by
Thiobacillus,
Sulfur oxidizing bacteria : Thiorhodaceae, etc
Thiorhodaceae, etc.
H2 S S
Sulfur compounds
from non-living
source: mines,
waters,
volcanic gases, etc.
 THE CARBON CYCLE

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Organic
(Green plants,
compounds
in plants

Combustion;
Metabolism;
Decomposition by
Microorganims
Microbial
reduction
Atmospheric or to
free CO2
Organic
compunds
in animals
CH4
Microbial oxidation
 Management of Hospital
Environment
 Areas Covered:
– Hazardous Materials
– Waste/solid /gas and liquid
– Food / water/air
– Emergency Preparedness
– Safety
– Security
– Medical Equipment
 Microbiology Of Health Care
Institutions
 Equilibrium :Host, agent and the
environment. Any misbalance might
increase or decrease the chance of
diseases .
 Control the agent, protect the Host and
clean the environment.
 CDC Manual:

 In 1970 the CDC published a detailed

manual “Isolation Techniques For Use In
Hospitals”
 In 1985 the CDC issued the “Universal
Precautions Standard”
– Designed to protect employees from
exposure to the blood and fluids of AIDS
Patients.
 Universal Precautions
Standard (conti.)
 The standard contains Six Components:
– administrative controls
– work control practices
– personal protective equipment
– housekeeping
– employee health issues
– Engineering control
 I- Administrative Controls

 It places the responsibility on the

institution (hospital) to establish An
Infection Control Program which should
include policies and procedures
,surveillance and staff education. These
describe patient care practices, cleaning,
disinfection, and sterilization .
 II- Work Control Practices

 Handling patients ,
 Handling specimens,
 hand washing practices is the single most
important practice to prevent the spread
of infections in a hospital.
 Laboratory employees.
 III- Personal Protective
Equipment (PPE)
 These are extra covering put on the
employee /patient when handling
patients .They include gowns, cloves,
masks, eye protection, and face shields.
 In 1983 CDC manual, Category-Specific
Isolation Precautions was developed to
assist employees in selecting appropriate
protective equipment to use .
 III-Personal Protective
Equipment (conti.)
 In 1995 the CDC published new document
“Guideline for Isolation Precautions in
Hospitals” It has two parts: the old
Universal Precautions: gloves, masks,
gowns, eye protection and the new part
(Transmission-Based Precautions) covers
Airborne, droplet and Contact.
 IV- Housekeeping
 Routine and terminal cleaning of surfaces
as well as linen and laundry. Selection of
detergents and disinfectants for cleaning
surfaces such as beds, bedrails, over-bed
tables, chairs, floors, walls in patient rooms
 Laundry facilities in hospitals are
monitored by the local health agencies.
The water and dryer temperatures are
important to clean and sterilize soiled
linen.
 V- The Employee Health
Program
 To prevent disease transmission from
patient to employee and from employee
to patient.
 Most programs include screening and
post exposure evaluation. Vaccination
against Rubella, Influenza, Mumps etc .
vary according to hospitals.
 VI- Engineering Controls:

 Consist of cleaning patient care

equipment sterilization or disinfection
 Handling and disposal of infectious
waste, air conditioning / ventilation,
positive or negative air flow.
 Sterilization

 In considering methods for sterilization

procedures, it is important to differentiate
between sterilization and disinfection.
     *   Sterilization kills all viable
microorganisms.
     *   Disinfection only reduces the number
of viable microorganisms.
 Disinfection

 It is a process that kills most pathogens ,

rarely kills spores.
 Three major methods are used:

– 1- Ultra violet irradiation

– 2. pasteurization
– 3. liquid chemicals.
 1- Ultraviolet Irradiation

 Both viruses and bacteria are susceptible.

UV light does not penetrate large dust

particles, mucus and large droplets . It
might cause skin and eye burns.
 2- Pasteurization

 It is hot water disinfection at

temperatures about 75 C0.
– Washer-Rinser-dryer
– It is simple ,nontoxic, and no chemical
residue .
– It does not kill spores
 3- Liquid Chemical Disinfection

 Disinfection will destroy pathogens except the

spores which they are more resistant .
 Major categories the commonly used
disinfectants are
– Halogens
– Phenols
– Quaternary ammonia (QUUATS)
– Aldehydes

 These are NOT sterilants

 Sterilization


 The preferred methods of sterilization are high

pressure steam/temperature (in autoclaves) for
items that can with stand high temperature,
 and ethylene oxide gas for items that cannot
withstand high temperature. However, cold
chemical sterilants may be used effectively for
many items.
 Sterilization
 Two Major Methods:
– 1) Thermal : steam and dry
– 2) Chemical : Ethylene Oxide(C2 H4 O)
– ETO mixed with CFC 12/88 , used for heat
sensitive articles
– Chloroflourocarbons
– ETO: is flammable, toxic air contaminant ,
probable carcinogen and CFC is an Ozone
depleter
 Other Sterilization Methods

 Ozone / oxidizes metals, plastics

 Radiation/ Gamma
 Plasma: Hydrogen peroxide
 Microwave Radiation ( Promising )

 All react with microorganism cell membrane

and destroy cell proteins and DNA
 Cidex: Active ingredient: 2% Glutaraldehyde. The
manufacturer's instructions indicate that a
minimum of 10 hours is required for sterilization.
Cidex comes in two formulations, Cidex and
Cidex-7 (long-life). The shelf life of activated
Cidex is 15 days and of activated Cidex-7 is 28
days.
 Clidox: Active ingredient: Chlorine dioxide. 1:5
mixture must be mixed daily. 1:18 mixture is good
for 14 days. 1:5 is a good sterilant; 1:18 is a
disinfectant.
 Alcide: Active ingredient: Sodium hypohlorite 1.37%. The
manufacturer's instructions indicate that a minimum of 6
hours is required for sterilization. The shelf life of the
activated solution is 14 days.
 Other acceptable sterilants are the following chemicals
classified as sterilants by the Centers for Disease Control
(CDC).  These are the chemical ingredients of some of the
commercial sterilants:
– Glutaraldehyde (2%) for a minimum of 10 hours.
– Formaldehyde (8%) / Alcohol (70%); minimum of 18 hours.
– Stabilized hydrogen peroxide (6%) for a minimum of 6 hours.
 Dispersants

 Corexit EC 9527A
 2-butoxyethanol 30%
 Organic Sulfonic acid 10%
 Propylene Glycol 1%

 Specific Gravity 0,98-1.02