Faculty Name: Dr. M.

Massarrat Ali Khan

Course Name: Introduction to Statistics
Email: mokhan@iba.edu.pk

Week 2
 Frequency Distribution
What Does It Mean? The reason for grouping is to organize the data into a
sensible number of classes in order to make the data more accessible and
understandable.

Three of the most common methods:

-Single-value grouping: Use with discrete data in which there are only a
small number of distinct values.
-Limit grouping: Use when the data are expressed as whole numbers and
there are too many distinct values to employ single-value grouping.
-Cut point grouping: Use when the data are continuous and are expressed
with decimals
1. Single-Value Grouping:

To group quantitative data is to use classes in which each class

represents a single possible value. Such classes are called single-value
classes, and this method of grouping quantitative data is called single-
value grouping.

Single value grouping is particularly suitable for discrete data in which

there are only a small number of values
2. Limit Grouping:

With this method, each class consists of a range of values. The smallest
value that could go in a class is called the lower limit of the class, and the
largest value that could go in the class is called the upper limit of the
class.

This method of grouping quantitative data is called limit grouping. It is

particularly useful when the data are expressed as whole numbers and
there are too many distinct values to employ single-value grouping.
3. Cutpoint Grouping:

A third way to group quantitative data is to use class cut point. As with limit grouping, each
class consists of a range of values. The smallest value that could go in a class is called the
lower cut point of the class, and the smallest value that could go in the next higher class is
called the upper cut point of the class.

Note that the lower cut point of a class is the same as its lower limit and that the upper
cut point of a class is the same as the lower limit of the next higher class.

This method is particularly useful when the data are continuous and are expressed with
decimals.
Example
 Histogram

• A histogram displays the classes of the quantitative data on a

horizontal axis and the frequencies (relative frequencies, percent's) of
those classes on a vertical axis.
• The frequency (relative frequency, percent) of each class is
represented by a vertical bar whose height is equal to the frequency
(relative frequency, percent) of that class
• To Construct a Histogram
Step 1 Obtain a frequency (relative-frequency, percent) distribution of the
data.
Step 2 Draw a horizontal axis on which to place the bars and a vertical axis
on which to display the frequencies (relative frequencies, percents).
Step 3 For each class, construct a vertical bar whose height equals the
frequency (relative frequency, percent) of that class.
Step 4 Label the bars with the classes, the horizontal axis with the name
of the variable, and the vertical axis with “Frequency” (“Relative
frequency,” “Percent”)
 Frequency Distribution

Requirements:
• Mid value
• Class Boundaries
• Less than cumulative frequency
• More than cumulative frequency
Example
Marks No. of students (f) Mid value (x) Class Boundaries

50-59 5 54.5 49.5-59.5

60-69 15 64.5 59.5-69.5
70-79 30 74.5 69.5-79.5

80-89 10 84.5 79.5-89.5

Represent the following frequency distribution using

1. frequency curve
2. Frequency polygon
3. Histogram
 Histogram

Class boundaries  Along x axis

Frequency  Along y axis

Histogram
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
49.5 59.5 69.5 79.5 89.5 99.5
 Frequency Polygon

Mid value  Along x axis

Frequency  Along y axis

Frequency Polygon
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5 104.5

Column2
 Frequency Curve:

• Mid value  Along x axis

• Frequency  Along y axis

Frequency Curve
35

30

25

20

15

10

0
44.5 54.5 64.5 74.5 84.5 94.5 104.5

Column2
Dotplots:
• Dotplots
Another type of graphical display for quantitative data is the dotplot.
• DEFINITION Dotplot
A dotplot is a graph in which each observation is plotted as a dot at an
appropriate place above a horizontal axis. Observations having equal
values are stacked vertically.
Dotplots are particularly useful for showing the relative positions of the
data in a data set or for comparing two or more data sets.
Procedure 2.6
To Construct a Dotplot
Step 1 Draw a horizontal axis that displays the possible values of the
quantitative data.
Step 2 Record each observation by placing a dot over the appropriate
value on the horizontal axis.
Step 3 Label the horizontal axis with the name of the variable.
Step 2 Record each observation by placing a dot over the appropriate
value on the horizontal axis.
The first price is $210, which calls for a dot over the “210” on the horizontal
axis in Fig. 2.7. Continuing in this manner, we get all the dots shown in Fig.
2.7.
Step 3 Label the horizontal axis with the name of the variable.

The variable here is “Price,” with which we label the horizontal axis in Fig.
2.7.
Dotplots are similar to histograms. In fact, when data are grouped using
singlevalue grouping, a dotplot and a frequency histogram are essentially
identical. However, for single-value grouped data that involve decimals,
dotplots are generally preferableto histograms because they are easier to
construct and use.
 Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

• In a stem-and-leaf diagram, each observation is separated into two parts, namely,

a stem—consisting of all but the rightmost digit—and a leaf, the rightmost digit.

• To Construct a Stem-and-Leaf Diagram

Step 1 Think of each observation as a stem—consisting of all but the rightmost
digit—and a leaf, the rightmost digit.
Step 2 Write the stems from smallest to largest in a vertical column to the left of a
vertical rule.
Step 3 Write each leaf to the right of the vertical rule in the row that contains the
appropriate stem.
Step 4 Arrange the leaves in each row in ascending order
 Example

Days to maturity for 40 short-term investments

Example
Distribution of a Data Set

• Distribution of a Data Set

• The distribution of a data set is a table, graph, or formula that
provides the values of the observations and how often they occur.
• Three important general aspects of the shape of a distribution involve
modality, symmetry, and skewness.
Modelity:
Symmetry

• Symmetry
Skewness:
• Skewness
• The frequency of an observation tells you the number of times the
observation occurs in the data. For example, in the following list of
numbers, the frequency of the number 9 is 5 (because it occurs 5
times):
• 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 9, 8, 5, 1, 1, 9, 9, 0, 6, 9.
• Tables can show either categorical variables (sometimes called
qualitative variables) or quantitative variables (sometimes called
numeric variables). You can think of categorical variables as categories
(like eye color or brand of dog food) and quantitative variables as
numbers.
 Measure of Central Tendency

• Mean

• Median

• Mode
 Measure of Central Tendency

• 

Arithmetic Mean:
• Population A.M is denoted by µ
µ= (ungrouped data)
µ= ∑ fx/ ∑ f (grouped data)

• Sample A.M is denoted by x̄

x̄ = ∑x/n (ungrouped data)
x̄ = ∑ fx/ ∑ f (grouped data)
 Median

• The Median Another frequently used measure of center is the median. Essentially,
the median of a data set is the number that divides the bottom 50% of the data
from the top 50%. A more precise definition of the median follows.

Median of a Data Set :

• Arrange the data in increasing order.
• If the number of observations is odd, then the median is the observation exactly in
the middle of the ordered list.
• If the number of observations is even, then the median is the mean of the two
middle observations in the ordered list. In both cases, if we let n denote the
number of observations, then the median is at position (n + 1)/2 in the ordered list.
 Example:

• 300 300 300 300 300 400 400 450 940 1050

What is Median?
• The number of observations is 10, so
(n + 1)/2 = (10 + 1)/2 = 5.5.
Consequently, the median is halfway between the fifth and sixth
observations (shown in boldface) in the ordered list, which is 350
 Median for Grouped Data

• Median= L + h/f (N/2 – C )

L = lower class boundary of median group
h = class width
f = frequency of median group
N = total number of values
C = Cumulative frequency before median group
 Median Example
C.B f C.F
•Median
  =( -C)
5 - 15 5 5 = 15 + ( - 5 )
15 - 25 8 13
= 15 + 5
= 20
25-35 3 16

35 – 45 2 18
 Mode for Group Data

• Mode
 example

C.B f C.F
•Mode=
  *h
5 - 15 5 5

15 - 25 8 13 Mode = 15 * 10
25-35 3 16
=15+3.75
= 18.75
35 – 45 2 18