Introduction To

Work Study
 Introduction to Textile pipeline

Start with textile fiber END USER

From fiber to consumer……
Consumer

Textile
Fibers Finishing

Retailing

Yarns

Textiles

Clothing
Manufacture

The Textile pipe line

Fibers

Yarns

Fabrics

ri e s
ss o
Ac ce
Cutting

Sewing

Finishing

Embroidery

Printing

Washing
Merchandising
Planning
Accounting
Costing
Stores
Work Study
Maintenance
Human Resource
Sample Room
Quality
 Customer Care
C
Retailing
u
Warehouse st
Buyers o
Buying houses m
Services e
r
ry
c to s
Fa
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• Marketing Manager
• Marketing executive / Officer
• Merchandising Manager (MM)
• Senior Merchandiser
• Merchandiser
• Merchandising assistants
• Trainees
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• Planning Managers
• Production planners
• Planning Executives
• Merchandising/Production Coordinator
• Data entry operator
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• Cutting Manager / In-charge

• Cutting supervisors
• Cutters
• Band knife operators
• Bias cutting M/C operators
• Marker Maker
• CAD/CAM Operators
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• GM (Production) / Factory Manager /

Plant Manager/
• Production Manager / Technical Managers
• Asst Production Manager / Chief Supervisor
• Supervisor / Area Managers
• Assistant Supervisors
• Line Leaders
• ………… …………
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• Finishing Manager / In-charge

• Folding supervisor / Supervisor
• Packing Manager / In-charge
• Assortment setters
• Ironers
• Folders
• Packers
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• IE Manager / In-charge
• Senior IEs / Work Study Officer
• Junior IEs / Time study officers
• Method Engineers
• Data entry operator
 Job Categories in the RMG sector

• Quality Assurance Manager

• Asst Managers
• Area Managers
• Sectional in-charges
• Quality inspectors
• Quality auditors
Fiber classification…
Fibers

Natural fibers Man-made fibers

Vegetable fibers •Cotton Natural polymers •Viscose

•Jute •Modal
•Coconut •Rubber
•Flax •Alginate
•Hemp •Triacetate
•Ramie

Animal fibers •Wool Synthetic polymers

•Polyester
•Silk •Nylon
•Cashmere •Acrylic
•Mohair •polyethylene
•Camel
•Alpaca

Inorganic •Glass
Mineral fibers •Asbestos •Carbon
•Metal
Yarn manufacturing….

Spun yarn
Spun yarns are made by mechanical assembly and twisting together (spinning)
of staple fibers.

Multi-filament yarn
A multi-filament yarn is a filament yarn made from multiple filaments
assembled with or without twist.

Monofilament yarn
A monofilament yarn consists of only a single continuous filament
 Yarn manufacturing….

Assembled yarns
Two or more yarns which are wound side by side on to the same package, but
without twisting around each other, are called assembled yarns.

Folded or plied yarns

Folded or plied yarns are yarns made by twisting together two or more single
(and/or folded) yarns of the same or different types.
Yarn Twist….

“S” Twist “Z” Twist

 Fabric Manufacturing

Fabrics can be manufactured in three basic ways namely,

1. Woven

2. Knitted

3. Non-woven
Woven construction…..
construction
Knit construction…..
 Stitch types
As per the ISO classification there are 6 stitch types.

Class 100 - Chain Stitch

Each loop is interconnected with the following loop of the same thread.
Opposite sides of the seam look different. This stitch type can be very easily
unpicked by running back from the last stitch to the first. The seam is
generally quite extensible. It is often used for temporary stitching.
 101 class
Single thread chain stitch using one needle thread and one blind lopper

Typical uses; Basting, Bag closing, Hat construction, and Buttonsew

103 class

Single Thread Chainstitches Using One Needle Thread and One Blind
Looper

Typical uses; Blindstitch Hem on Cuffs, Bottoms, etc .

104 class

Single Thread Chainstitches Using One Needle Thread and One Blind
Looper
Typical uses; Embroidery, Blindstitch Hem on Cuffs, Bottoms, etc
Class 200 - Hand Stitch

Formed by single threads being passed completely from one side of the
material to the other. The thread is held by the material. Originally made by
hand, some of them can now also be formed by machine.

202 class

Single Thread Hand Stitch Using One Needle Thread

Typical uses; Basting, Tacking and Repairs
205 class

Single Thread Stitch Using One Needle Thread

Typical uses; "Pick Stitch" Topstitch

 Class 300 - Lock Stitch

Formed by two different thread systems. A needle thread introduced

from one side of the material is interlaced with an under thread
supplied from a spool from the other side. The stitch is difficult to
unpick and both sides have the same appearance. Generally, lock
stitches are less extensible than chain stitch seams. This type finds the
widest application.

Two or more thread lock stitch using needle threads and one bobbing
thread
301 class

Two Thread Lockstitch Using One Needle Thread and One Hook (bobbin)
Thread
Typical uses; General Seaming, Topstitching, etc.
304 Class

Two Thread Zig Zag Lockstitch Using One Needle Thread and One Hook
(bobbin) Thread

Typical uses; General Seaming, Topstitching, Coverstitching, Knits or

Wovens where moderate stretch or greater coverage is required
306 Class
Two thread – Blind stitch
Two Thread Lockstitch Blindstitch Using One Needle Thread and
One Hook (bobbin) Thread

Typical uses; Hemming or Seaming Lining to Shell Fabric

Class 400 - Multi thread chain stitch

This also formed from two thread systems. The loops of the needle thread are
drawn all the way through the material and they are interconnected on the
under side by thread supplied from a looper. Top and bottom sides have a
different appearance. The stitch can easily be unpicked and is quite extensible.
Special applications are elastic cross-over seams, seams in knitted fabrics and
seams which have to be flat.

Multi thread chain stitch using one or more needles thread and one
or more loppers thread
401 class
Two thread – seaming multiple plies with moderate stretch
Two thread chain stitch using one needle thread and one lopper thread
Typical uses; Knit Seaming, Woven Lap-seams, etc
406 class
Three Thread Chainstitch Using Two Needle Threads and One Looper
Thread
Typical uses; Knit Seaming, Woven Lap-seams, Coverstitching where
greater stretch is required.
Class 500 - Overage chain stitch

Overage chain stitches are formed from one or more needle and/or looper
threads. Needle thread loops are taken all the way through the material and
are interconnected with themselves or with another thread. At least one thread
system passes around the edge of the material. Overage stitches of various
types are used to neaten and to bund the cut edges of woven and knitted
materials.
Multi-Thread OverEdge Chainstitches Using Needle Thread(s)
and Looper Thread(s)
502 class
Two Thread Overedge Chainstitch Using One Needle and One Looper
Thread
Typical uses; One Needle, Two Looper Overedge Stitch for Serging (Covering) Raw Edges
503 class

Two Thread Overedge Chainstitch Using One Needle and One Looper
Thread

Typical uses; One Needle, Two Looper Overedge Stitch for Serging (Covering) Raw Edges
Thread Cross-over is on the Edge of the Fabric
504 class
Three Thread Overedge Chainstitch Using One Needle and Two Looper
Threads
Typical uses; Overedge stitch for Serging (Covering) Raw Edges and Light Seaming.
Stitch has high elongation along the edge of the fabric
512 class
Four Thread (Overedge) Mock Safety Stitch Using Two Needle and Two
Looper Threads
Typical uses; Mock Safety Stitch for Seaming Knits and Woven Fabric.
Stitch has a wide bite and Greater Stretch for bulky Knits
Stitch has high elongation along edge of fabric
514class
Four Thread Overedge Stitch Using Two Needle and Two Looper Threads

Typical uses; Overedge Stitch for Seaming Bulky Knits Stitch has a wide bite and Greater Stretch
for bulky Knits or Loosely Woven Fabrics. Stitch has high elongation along the edge of fabric
515class

Four Thread True Safety Stitch Using Two Needle and Two Looper Threads
Stitch combines Fed. Class 401 stitch with Fed. Class 503 stitch

Typical uses; Overedge Stitch for Seaming Knits or Wovens Stitch has a medium bite and
Moderate Stretch for Seaming on Knits or Woven Fabrics. Stitch has medium elongation along
the edge of fabric
516class
Five Thread True Safety Stitch Using Two Needle and Three Looper Threads
Stitch combines Fed. Class 401 stitch with Fed. Class 504 stitch

Typical uses; Overedge Stitch for Seaming Knits or Wovens

Stitch has a medium bite and Moderate Stretch for Seaming on Knits or
Woven Fabrics. Stitch has medium elongation along the edge of fabric
with better coverage on the fabric edge
Class 600 - Covering chain stitch

This stitch type is generally formed from three thread systems. The cover
threads lie on the top surface and are held in place by the needle threads
which in turn are interlaced on the back of the seam by the looper threads.
They are used specially for making flat extensible seams in knitted fabrics.

Multi-Thread Coverstitches
602 class

Four Thread Cover Stitch Using Two Needle and Two Looper Threads
Typical uses; Cover Stitch for Over-stitching Seams, Seaming Stitch
for Hemming on Knits, Decorative Stitch for Knits and Wovens
605 class

Five Thread Cover Stitch Using Three Needle and Two Looper Threads

Typical uses; Cover Stitch for Over-stitching Seams, Seaming Stitch for Hemming on Knits,
High Elongation for Foundation Garments Stitch is used for "Butt-Seams" (Joining Raw Edges
Together)
607 class

Six Thread Cover Stitch Using Four Needle and Two Looper Threads

Typical uses; Cover Stitch for Over-stitching Seams, High Elongation for Foundation Garments

Stitch is used for "Butt-Seams" (Joining Raw Edges Together)

Parts of a Needle Needle points
 Machine types
Flat bed machine Cylinder bed machine

Raised bed machine

Side bed machine

Post bed machine
Main Parts of a machine
Parts of a machine
 Production & Productivity

Production = Output (Products or Services)

Productivity = Output
Input
Example –

A potter working 8 hours a day produces

400 pots a month using a wood-fired kiln.
He sells one pot for $ 2.00.

• Let’s assume that as a result of a change in

the method of work he was able to produce
500 pots a month instead of 400 with the
same equipment and hours of work. His
productivity calculated in terms of number
of pots produced will then have increased
by 25%.
• Let us now assume that as a result he was
unable to sell all 500 pots and had to lower
his price from $ 2.00 a pot to $ 1.80 a pot.
If he wants to asses his productivity gain,
the potter may be more interested in using
monetary terms rather than simply the
number of pots produced. He could then
argue that the value of his output used to
be 400 X $ 2 = $ 800 a month and is now
500 X $ 1.80 = $ 900 a month.

His input has not changed. Hence his

productivity gain is $(900 – 800) = 12.50%
$ 800
 What are the Inputs?
• Land & buildings

• Materials
that can be converted in to products.

• Energy (Power)
electricity, gas, oil, solar power etc.

• Machines & equipment

for operational activities, transport, heating, air conditioning, office
equipment etc.

• Human resources (Manpower)

people who are trained to perform operational activities
 The task of Management

The Management of an enterprise is responsible for seeing

that all the INPUTS mentioned above are combined in the
best possible way to achieve the maximum productivity.

Land & building

Materials
Management
Products
Energy (Power) obtains the facts, plans, &
directs, coordinates.
Services
controls, motivates
Machine &
equipment

Human resources
(manpower)
 Process of added value

Input Method Output

Land & building Technical skills Quality

Materials Technology
Energy Willpower Cost
Machine & equipment System
Manpower Performance Delivery

Money Money + Profit

 What is “Management” ?
Plan

1. Target setting.

2. Preparation of the
method of reaching
the target.
Do
Action
1. Instruction,
1. Emergency measure. communication,
education.
2. Permanent measure.
2. Work implementation.

Check

1. Checking the target

result.

2. Evaluation.
5S (Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu, Shitsuke)

Sort & remove unnecessary

materials from the work place.

Organize & store materials in an

orderly fashion to allow any worker
to take out a material in need quickly.

Keep tools or equipment in a

constantly clean condition to create
a neatly arranged work place.

Maintain the environment in which

everything is clearly observed by
retaining seiri, seiton & seiso.

Train workers so they control

themselves to carry out predetermined
activities in a predetermined manner.
 The “Johari Window”
Personal awareness divided into four different types -

Me (controller)
known unknown
known

Open Blind
Others
unknown

Hidden Unknown
Ineffective time as a result of
shortcomings of management…..

• Excess product variety.

• Lack of standardization.
• Design changes.
• Bad planning.
• Lack of fabric & accessories.
• Badly maintained machines.
• Accidents.
• Poor service.
• Lack of motivation.
Ineffective time within the control of the
operator….

• Absence, lateness, laziness.

• Talking.
• Carelessness.
• Accidents due to carelessness.
 Cost & Price of a garment

Profit

General
overheads
and
administration
cost
Price
Operational
overheads Total
cost
Direct Total
materials operational
cost
Prime cost
Direct
labor
 Productivity & Work Study
Definition of Work Study –

Work Study is the systematic

examination of the methods of
carrying on activities so as to improve
the effective use of resources and to
set up standards of performance for
the activities being carried out.
Objectives of Work Study -
• Simplify or modify the operation to reduce unnecessary work.

• Increase production and productivity.

• Setting time standards.

• Reduce cost by most effective usage of inputs.

• Improvement of conditions, which involve an element of

excessive fatigue or danger.

• Improve quality.     

• Evaluation of human work.

 How the total time of a job is made up
Work content added Ineffective time
Work content added by inefficient
Basic work content of product by poor product resulting from
methods of manufacture or
and operation. design or material human resources
Operation (B)
utilization. (A) contribution. (C)

Basic work content Total ineffective time

Total time of operation under existing conditions

Basic work content – is the irreducible minimum time theoretically required to produce
one unit of out put.

A – Poor design and frequent design changes / Waste of materials / Incorrect quality
standards.

B - Poor layout & utilization of space / Inadequate materials handling / Frequent

stoppages as production changes from one product to another / Ineffective method
of work / Poor planning of inventory / Frequent breakdown of machines &
equipments.

C – Absenteeism & lateness / Poor workmanship / Accidents & occupational hazards.

 How Management techniques can reduce
Total time if ineffective time
all techniques Basic work content
perfectly applied

Poor design & frequent Product development – reduces work content due to poor
design changes design

Waste of materials Proper materials utilization – reduces & utilizes waste

Incorrect quality Quality control – ensures proper standards and

standards inspection methods
Poor layout & utilization Better layout & process planning – reduces unnecessary
of space movements
Ineffective time Inadequate materials Materials handling – adapted to activity, reduces time &
totally eliminated handling effort
if all techniques
Frequent stoppages as
perfectly applied Production planning & control – reduces ineffective time
production changes
Ineffective methods of Method study of an activity – reduces work content due
work to Poor methods of work
Poor planning of Inventory control – defines appropriate & most
inventory economical inventory levels
Frequent breakdowns Preventive maintenance – ensures long life & continuous
of machines & equipment run of machines & equipments
Proper management & personnel policy – can create a
Absenteeism & lateness
satisfying working environment

Poor workmanship Training – can develop appropriate skills

Accidents & occupational Better working conditions – improves morale & reduces
hazards absenteeism
 Why Work Study is valuable?

1. It is a means of raising the productivity of a plant or

operating unit by the re organization of work, a method
which normally involves little or no capital expenditure on
facilities & equipment.

2. It is systematic. This ensures that no factor effecting the

efficiency of an operation is overlooked, whether in
analyzing the original practices or in developing the new,
and that all the facts about the operation are available.

3. It is the most accurate means yet evolved of setting

standards of performance, on which the effective planning
& control of production depends.

4. It can contribute to the improvement of safety & working

conditions at work by exposing hazardous operations &
developing safer methods of performing operations.
 Why Work Study is valuable?
5. The savings resulting from properly applied work study
start at once and continue as long as the operation
continues in the improved form.

6. It is a “tool” which can be applied everywhere. It can be

used with success wherever work is done or plant is
operated, not only in manufacturing shops but also in
offices, stores, laboratories and service industries such as
wholesale & retail distribution & restaurants, and on
farms.

7. It is relatively cheap & easy to apply.

8. It is one of the most penetrating tools of investigation

available to management. This makes it an excellent
weapon for starting an attack on inefficiency in any
organization since, in investigating one set of problems, the
weaknesses of all the other functions affecting them will
gradually be laid bare.
 History of Work Study
• Walter of Henley (13th century)
Henley was the first practitioner of Work Study. He was an
English farmer. He studied about farming methods & how to
improve them. He wrote a letter to his son describing how to
improve farming methods.

• Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 – 1915)

Taylor, was an American mechanical engineer who sought to
improve industrial efficiency. He is regarded as the “Father of
scientific management”, and was one of the first management
consultants. He broke the job into elements and timed these
with stopwatch. Based on these times he worked out a
bonus system. His major principle was “a fair days work for a
fair days pay”.
 History of Work Study
In between the eras of Henley &
Taylor, several others also discussed
about work study practices. They are,

• Leonardo Da Vinci (1452 – 1519)

• Perronnet & Pins (1760)
• Charles Babbage (1791 – 1832)
• Boulton & Sons (1800)
 Qualities of Work Study practitioner
 Education – with matriculation, better still
a university education, preferably in the
engineering or business fields.

Personal qualities –
 Sincerity & honesty
 Enthusiasm
 Interest in & sympathy with people
 Tact
 Good appearance
 Self confidence
 Work Study Stories
• One wisdom who found the sciencetific management is Mr.
Fredrick Taylor. He is applying work study theories not even in
working area. He had extended his applications to his
personal life further. He calculated his daily average shaving
total time as 30 sec.So he want to minimize the time .He
introduce two razors to both hand & shaving both side of the
face at a one time. Amazing he is now only taking 15
seconds.50% improvement at apparently. But he didn’t
calculate the bleeding recovery time due to careless shaving
bleeding take 2 to 3 minutes to recover his face. Most
important hints is we should apply this theory more
effectively. Then the results are generating.
Techniques of Work Study
Work Study

Method Study Work Measurement

(better way to do (time it takes to
the job) do the job)

Higher productivity
 METHOD STUDY

Work SMART before working

hard!
Definition of Method Study –

Method Study is the systematic

recording and critical examination of
ways of doing things in order to make
improvements.
Objectives of Method Study -

• Simplify the task (or eliminate it )

• Eliminate unnecessary motions

• Reduce inherent work content

• Engineer the operation

 Procedure of Method Study
1. Select - the job to be studied

2. Record - by collecting data or direct observation

3. Examine - by challenging purpose, place, sequence & method of work

4. Develop - new method, drawing on contributions of those concerned

5. Evaluate - results of different alternative solutions

6. Define - new method & present it

7. Install - new method & train persons in applying it

8. Maintain - and establish control procedures

Step 1 - Select
In general, one can select all the operations for
method study. But in actual practice, we should
understand the priorities. There should be a good
reason to select a job for further study.

We should consider three factors when selecting a

job for studies.

– Economical or cost effective consideration

– Technical considerations
– Human considerations
Step 1 - Select
Cost is the usual basis for selection

Poor use of material, labor or machine capacity, resulting in

high scrap and re-processing cost.

Bad layout or operation planning, resulting unnecessary

movement of material.

Existence of bottle necks.

Inconsistencies in quality.

High fatiguing work.

Excessive overtime.

Safety issues.

Employees complaints about their work without logical reason.

Step 2 - Record
Process chart symbols –
Eg. –Drive nail, Drill hole,
type letter etc.

Eg. –Move materials by

truck, hoist/elevator, by
carrying.

Eg. –Bulk storage of raw

material, finished goods in
warehouse, documents in
vault etc.

Eg. –Material in bench

waiting to be processed,
employee waiting for Elevator.

Eg. –Examine material for

quality or quantity, read
steam gauge on boiler etc.

Two handed process chart….

Step 3 - Examine
Critical Examination –

• Examine the facts as they are, not as they appear to be.

• Do not be influenced by preconceived ideas.

• Challenge all aspects of the problem.

• Avoid hasty judgments.

• Do not ignore small details.

• Put aside “hunches” or “bright ideas”.

• Do not consider new methods until the existing method has been
examined.
Step 3 - Examine
Examination procedure –

• PURPOSE – of the operation

• PLACE – where it is carried out
• SEQUENCE– in which it is performed
• PERSON – who is doing it
• MEANS – by which it is carried out
Step 3 - Examine
Questioning technique –
Primary questions Secondary questions
Purpose - What is done? What else might be done?
Why is it done? What should be done?

Place - Where is it done? Where else might it be done?

Why is it done there? Where should it be done?

Sequence - When is it done? When might it be done?

Why is it done then? When should it be done?

Person - Who does it? Who else might do it?

Why does that Who should do it?
person do it?

Means - How is it done? How else might it be done?

Why is it done that How should it be done?
way?
 Step 3 - Examine
Primary questions Secondary questions

Purpose What is done? What else might be done?

Why is it done? What should be done?

Place Where is it done? Where else might it be done?

Why is it done there? Where should it be done?

Sequence When is it done? When might it be done?

Why is it done then? When should it be done?

Person Who does it? Who else might do it?

Why does that person Who should do it?
do it?

Means How is it done? How else might it be done?

Why is it done that way? How should it be done?
Principles of Motion economy

 Use of human body

 Arrangement of work place

 Design of tools & equipment

 Motion economy…..
• Reduce the number of motions
• Reduce the distances moved
• Reduce eye shift
• Simplify grasps
• Toss dispose rather than place dispose
• Best use of both hands
• Encourage rhythm
• Promote natural posture & movement
 Use of human body
• Both hands same time.

• Both hands not be idle.

• Motions of arms - symmetrical & simultaneous.

• Continuous curved movements are preferred.

• Eye movements are confined to a comfortable area, without the

need for frequent changes of focus.

• Eye - hand co-ordination.

• Order of movement – natural & rhythmic.

• Hand & body motions - lowest classification.

 Classification of Movements
Class Pivot Body member(s) moved

1. Knuckle Fingers

2. Wrist Hand, Fingers

3. Elbow Forearm, Hand, Fingers

4. Shoulder Upper arm, Forearm, Hand, Fingers

5. Trunk Torso, Upper arm, Forearm, Hand, Fingers

 Arrangement of work place
• Definite & fixed locations

• Pre-position - reduce search

• Gravity feed

• Tools & material - close to the worker as possible

• Tools & material - best sequence of motion

• Drop deliveries - wherever possible

• Chair - height of the work place & comfort

• Color - contrast with that of the work & reduce eye fatigue.
 Design of tools & equipment
 Relieved holding by hand - jig, fixture, device

 Combined tools

 Inherent capabilities of the finger

 Placement of levers, crossbars, hand wheels -

least change in the body position
Normal working area
Maximum working area

Left hand Normal Normal Right hand

maximum working working maximum
working area area working
area area
 Essential steps in teaching a new method

1. The operator must be focused upon what is to be

learned

2. The method must be demonstrated and

explained.

3. The operator must be allowed to practice.

4. Constant correction of faults

5. Operator must persevere

 Something to think,
• Do You know where u can apply the work study-
Answer is In your total life style.Following
illustrating some examples for that(Not relevant
to RMG sector)
• Do you know even in formula racing applying
work study. To change the two set of tires &
fuel in it’s only taking 7.6 sec
• Do you ever believe that 16 paratas can make
within 36 seconds. For each parata taking only
2.25 sec hotels also applying work study.
WORK MEASUREMENT
Definition of Work Measurement –

Work Measurement is the application

of techniques designed to establish
the time for a qualified worker to carry
out a task at a defined rate of
working.
Objectives of Work Measurement -

 Measure work content

 Determine the time

 Key to Scientific Management

Advantages of Work Measurement -
• Set Targets

• Calculate Efficiency

• Determine Cost

• Manpower Allocation

• Production Planning & Control

• Incentive Schemes
Work Measurement Techniques
• Time Study
- Directly observing an Operator

• Pre-determined Motion Time Systems (PMTS)

- Analyzing the Motions used to carryout the
activity

• Analysis of Past Records

- Using Previous records/ studies available in
the factory
 Time Study
Definition of Time Study –

Time study is a work measurement

technique for recording the times of
performing a certain specific job or it’s
elements carried out under specified
conditions, and for analyzing the data so as
to obtain the time necessary for an operator
to carry it out at a defined rate of
performance.
 Steps in Time Study
1. Obtaining & recording all the information available about the job, the
operative & surrounding conditions which is likely to affect the carrying out
of the work.

2. Recording a complete description of the method, breaking down the

operation into elements.

3. Examining the detailed breakdown to ensure that the most effective method
& motions are being used, and determining the sample size.

4. Measuring with a timing device (stop watch) and recording the time taken by
the operator to perform each element of the operation.

5. At the same time assessing the effective speed of working of the operator
relative to the observer’s concept of the rate corresponding to standard
rating.

6. Convert the observed times to basic times.

7. Adding necessary allowances to the basic time.

8. Determining the standard time for the operation.

 What is “Element”?
An element is a distinct part of a
specified job selected for convenience
of observation, measurement and
analysis.
Why break the operation into elements?

• To give a systematic, detailed specification of work.

• To identify subsequent omissions or insertions of elements.

• Operator may not work at the same pace throughout the

operation.

• To extract the time for certain parts.

• To keep the concentration of the time study officer.

 How elements are selected?
• Easily identifiable beginnings and endings.
(break points)

• As short as can be conveniently timed.

(between 6-30 sec.)

• Represent naturally unified distinct segment of

operation.

• Separate machine and manual elements if possible.

• Elements which do not occur every cycle should be

timed separately.
 Types of Elements
– Repetitive element is an element which occurs in every work cycle of an
operation.

– Occasional element is an element which does not occur in every work

cycle of an operation but which may occur at regular or irregular intervals.

– Constant element is an element for which the basic time remains constant
whenever it is performed.

– Variable element is an element for which the basic time varies in relation
to some characteristics of the product, equipment or process.

– Manual element is an element performed by a worker.

– Machine element is an element performed automatically by any process,

physical, chemical or otherwise, that once started can not be influenced by
a worker except to terminate it prematurely.

– Governing element is an element occupying a longer time within a work

cycle than that of any other element which is being performed concurrently.

– Foreign element is an element observed which does not form a part of the
operations being studied.
 Equipments needed for Time Study

• Stop watch.
• Study board.
• Time study forms.
• Pen.
• Calculator.
Approach to the worker…..
• First approach the Supervisor before the Operator.

• Always be polite.

• Ask permission to do the study.

• Stand in full view of the operator.

• Thank the operator once the test is completed.

• Make the operator feel relaxed.

Before starting a time study……
• Method study should be done.
• Method should produce the required quality.
• For new methods plenty of time should give to settle down.
• Operator should be rate between 70%-110%.
• Inform the supervisor before start.
• Operator should not be disturbed during the study.
• Ensure operator gets enough supply.

When doing a time study……

• Stand diagonally behind the operator about 1.5-2.0 meters

• Take more than 20 observations
• Record relevant details about the method and the machine
 Rating
Rating = Observed Rating x 100%
Standard Rating

Standard Rating –

The pace at which a Qualified worker perform a task.

(Standard Rating = 100)

• Why need Rating?
- Standard Worker is not available all the time.
- Different people take different times.
- To compare the observed worker with a Qualified
worker.
- To convert the observed time to a time a Qualified
worker would likely to take.

• Disadvantages of Rating
- It is an assessment, not a measurement.
- It is subjective.
- Needs experience to do rating.
How Rating can be done….
1. Establish in mind how Standard worker
should work.

2. Compare the effectiveness of the observed

worker with standard worker in terms of,

– Skill - The techniques apply to perform the job.

– Effort - Expression of the will to work efficiently.

 How to assess Skill….
Symptoms of skilled work
• Avoidance of all unnecessary motions.
• Shortest path of movements.
• Sureness of touch and methods.
• Smooth rather than jerky movements.
• Consistently stick to the best method.
• Consistent cycle times.
• Intelligent anticipation of the next move.

Symptoms of poor skill

• Lack of rhythm.
• Inconsistency.
• Jerky Movements.
 How to assess Effort….

Symptoms of Good effort

• Steadiness.
• Continuity.

Symptoms of poor effort

• Low Speed of movement.
• Frequent small pauses.
• Effort to make the work harder than what it is.
• Laziness.
Standard worker (Qualified worker)
A qualified worker is one who has acquired the
skill, knowledge and other attributes to carryout
the work in hand to satisfactory standards of
quantity, quality and safety.

Qualities of a Qualified worker –

• Achieves smooth & consistent movements.

• Acquires rhythm.

• Responds more rapidly to signals.

• Anticipates difficulties and is more ready to overcome them

• Carries out the task without giving the appearance of

conscious attention, and is therefore more relaxed.
Rating

• Rating is the assessment of the worker’s rate of working relative to the

observer’s concept of rate corresponding to standard place

Standard Performance
Standard performance is the rate of out put which qualified
workers will naturally achieve without over –exertion as an
average over the working day or shift , provided that they know
adhere to the specified method and provided that they are
motivated to apply themselves to their work

This performance is denoted as 100 on the standard rating and

performance scales
Ratings….
Observed rating Speed

50 Very slow – no interest.

75 Steady – unhurried.

100 Brisk – business like.

125 Very fast – above average.

150 Outstanding – unusual.

 Standard Minute Value (SMV)
Definition –

SMV is the time taken by a qualified

worker to perform a specified task in a
defined level of performance.
Rating Errors
SMV = Basic time + Allowances

Basic time = Observed time X Rating

 Allowances….
Personal
needs
Fixed
allowances
Basic
fatigue Relaxation
allowances

Stress & strain

Variable
allowances Contingency
Environmental allowances Total
allowances
Policy
allowances

Special
allowances
 Relaxation allowances
Relaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time
intended to provide the worker with the opportunity to
recover from the physiological and psychological effects of
carrying out specified work under special conditions and to
allow attention to personal needs. The amount of allowance
will depend on the nature of the job.

Relaxation allowances are divided in to two categories,

1. Fixed allowances
– Personal needs (drinking, going to toilet, washing etc.)
– Basic fatigue (always a constant, given to relieve fatigue)

2. Variable allowances (due to poor environmental conditions,

added stress & strain etc.)
 Contingency allowances

A contingency allowance is a small allowance of

time which may be included in a standard time to
meet legitimate and expected items of work or
delays, the precise measurement of which is
uneconomical because of their infrequent or
irregular occurrence.

This allowance is for small unavoidable delays occur during

work.
 Policy allowances

A policy allowance is an increment, other than

bonus increment, applied to standard time (or to
some constituent part of it) to provide a
satisfactory level of earnings for a specified level of
performance under exceptional circumstances.

Special Allowances
Special allowances maybe given for any activities
which are not normally part of the operation cycle
but which are essential to the satisfactory
performance of the work.
 A Typical Machinist’s Day

Total attending time (540 min)

Total working time (480 min)

Lunch break
Total on standard time (450 min)

Non productive time

Total basic time (383 min)

Total sewing Allowances

time (96 min)
Handling time
 Uses of SMV
• To calculate the individual operator targets.

• To calculate the section targets.

• For manning power allocation.

• For product costing.

• For production Planning.

• Evaluate the performances.

• For set the Incentive levels.

 SMV related calculations
Target calculation

100% Individual target per hour = 60 min

Operation SMV

70% Individual target per hour = 60 min X 70%

Operation SMV

100% Individual target per day = Working hrs X 60 min

Operation SMV

70% Individual target per day = Working hrs X 60 min X 70%

Operation SMV
 SMV related calculations
Efficiency calculation

Overall Efficiency = Produced minutes X 100

Used minutes

On standard Efficiency = Produced minutes X100

(Used minutes – Non productive time)

Produced minutes = Produced quantity X SMV

Used minutes = Manpower X Working hrs. X 60 min.

Non productive time ???

What is “Non productive time” ?
The time a machinist loses which is outside of
her control.

Non productive time (Loss time) categories –

• No style allocation
• Pilot delay / approval delay
• Non availability of cut panels & accessories
• Machine breakdown / non availability of machines
• Power /Electricity failure
• Embroidery / printing delay
• Cutting mistakes / Quality issues
• Meetings
 SMV related calculations
Load = Amount of work to be done.

Load = SMV X Number of Garments

Capacity = Amount of work that can be done.

Capacity = Number of X Working X Running

workers minutes efficiency

Normal situation,
Load = or < Capacity
ACTIVITY SAMPLING
Definition of Activity sampling -

Activity Sampling is a method of

finding the percentage occurrence of a
certain activity by statistical sampling
and random observations.
What are the “Productive” and
“Non productive” activities in
Sewing section?
Objectives of Activity sampling -

• To asses the proportion of time spent on

particular activity.

• To asses the idle time of machine or

operation.

• To find out where to improve.

• For the time standards.

 Calculations of Activity Sampling
Calculating the number of observations
required for the final study –

N = 4P (100 – P)
L2

N - Minimum Number of observations

required
P - Maximum percentage occurrence
calculated from the pilot study
L - Error limit
 Calculations of Activity Sampling
Calculating the likely ranges of each activity
percentage –

L = P (100 – P)
N

L - Likely range
P - Percentage occurrence of the activity
N - Total number of observations of final
study
Advantages of Activity sampling -

• It requires fewer man hours and costs less than Time Study.

• Observations may take place over days or weeks, thus

decreasing the effects of day to day or week to week
variations.

• It provides management with an accurate reflection of factors

that affect production.

• The observer does not need to be a specially trained Work

Study Officer.

• Activity Sampling can be interrupted at any time, without

affecting the results.

• It usually requires less time to calculate the results.

Disadvantages of Activity sampling -

• It is not economical to study a single

worker or machine.

• Due to its nature it does not require very

fine breakdown of the operations as in
time study.

• Because it does not record the details, if

the operator changes the method the
study becomes useless
Line Balancing
 Water Tube Capacity

1
2 3 1 6 5 8 7 9 9
Above illustrating the different different tubes potential water capacities
per second.But even though we have different capacities we will get as
the final out put as the 1 liter/per second.Total tube capacity per second
is 50 liters.Maximum tube potential is 9 liters.minimum tube potential is
1 liter.So,it’s obivious we will get the minimum capacity at all.After
capacity balancing we can illustrate the diagrame as follows
 Balance Tube Capacities

5
5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6
Total tube capacity is 50 liters,After balancing the tube capacities each
tube station is capable to deliver 5 liters per second.But at initial stages
we need to carry 6liters per second inorder to pressure the out put 5
liter.
 Operation Breakdown
Operation Machine SMV
A s/n 0.44
B s/n 0.25
C Helper 0.36
D s/n 0.75
E o/l 0.66
F s/n 0.28
G f/l 0.88
H b/t 0.42

Total smv 4.04

 Total SMV
Basic pitch time (BPT) = Allocated manpower

OR,

60 min
Basic pitch time (BPT) =
100% line target per hour
Standard formulas to calculate UCL & LCL -

Basic pitch time

Upper control limit (UCL) =
Planned organization efficiency

Lower control limit (LCL) = (2 X Basic pitch time) – Upper control limit

Basic way to calculate UCL & LCL -

Upper control limit (UCL) = Basic pitch time + 5% of Basic pitch time

Lower control limit (LCL) = Basic pitch time – 5% of Basic pitch time
Typical pitch diagram -
Bottle neck process

0.56

0.54
UCL
0.52
Allocated work (time)

0.50 BPT
0.48
LCL
0.46

0.44

0.42
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

Operation (in the order of process)

Process analysis table

(Garment tree)
Symbols used for process analysis table -

Single needle lock stitch

Quality inspection.
machine work.

Work of special purpose Quantity & quality inspection.

sewing machines. (mainly quantity inspection)

Quality & quantity inspection.

Iron & hand work. (mainly quality inspection)

Press work. Storage of product parts.

Quantity inspection. Storage of finished products.

How to make process analysis table -
Name of the material part

Process symbol

Net processing time / SMV Process name

1 (Machine type, Attachment &
work aid names)

Process number
Example -
Coin pocket

0.20 min Sew hem

1 (SNLS, 1/4 CR gauge foot)
Incentive schemes
 Principles of an Incentive scheme
1. Scheme should be easily understood.

2. The reward must be related to effort.

3. Must be just to the employer and employee.

4. Must be a mutual agreement.

5. No limits on earnings.

6. The standard times must remain fixed (if the methods are same)

7. All standards and targets should be attainable.

8. Incentive should not be affected by matters outside the

employee’s control
 Principles of an Incentive scheme
9. Workers must understand the scheme.

10.Scheme should provide penalties for sub standard or spoiled

work.

11.Scheme should assist supervision.

12.Scheme should conform to any national, local, or trade

agreements.

13.Should include indirect workers and supervisors.

14.Should motivate the operators to work at incentive pace.

15.A guaranteed minimum wage.

 Conditions for installing an Incentive
scheme
• Standard Times must be accurate and consistent.

• Sufficient Work in Progress.

• Incentive schemes do not solve production problems.

• All other systems should be running smoothly.

• Bonus payments should be made over as short period as possible.

• Bonus should not be paid unless earned.

• If basic wage increases so must the bonus earnings.

 Glossary
• Bottleneck: Any part of a production line that adversely affects throughput.
•
• Cell: An arrangement of machinery, tools, and personnel designed for most logically and
• efficiently to complete a production sequence.
•
• Cellular Manufacturing: An approach where manufacturing work centers (cells) have the
• total capabilities needed to produce an item or group of similar items.
•
• Changeover Time: The time that elapses between the completion of one production run
• and the beginning of another production run.
•
• Just-in-Time: A production scheduling concept that calls for any item needed at a
• production operation –whether raw material, finished item, or anything in between, to be

• produced and available precisely when needed.

• Kanban: A Japanese term meaning “visual record” or “card.” In Lean Manufacturing
• Kanban has come to means “Signal.”
•
• Kanban System: A system that controls production inventory and movement through the
• visual control of operations.
• Page 6 of 8

• Mistake Proofing (Poka - Yoke): Technology and procedures designed to prevent defects
• and equipment malfunction during manufacturing processes.
•
• Visual Controls: Displaying the status of an activity so every employee can see it and take
• appropriate action.
•
• Non-Value-Added: Activities or actions taken that add no real value to the product or
• service; these activities are termed as waste.
 Short Question
• One-Piece Flow: A situation in which products proceed, one complete product at a time,
• through various operations in design, order-taking, and production, without interruptions,
• backflows, or scrap. This is also known as single-piece flow.
•
• Value Stream: The set of specific actions required to bring a specific product through
• three critical management tasks of any business: problem solving, information
• management, and physical transformation.
•
• Value Stream Mapping: A process mapping method used to document the current and
• future states of the information and material flows in a value stream from customer to
• supplier.
•
• Work In Progress (WIP): Production material in the process of being converted into a
• saleable product.
•
• Changeovers: Switching from producing one part (product) to another.
•
• Flow Chart: A visual representation of the steps in a process or system.
•
• Gemba: A Japanese term that means “Real Place” or “Where the action takes place.”
 Short Questions
• Inventory: The money and materials invested in by a company in order to create products
• for sale.
•
• Lead Time: The time required from receipt of order until products are shipped to a
• customer.
•
• Jidoka: Japanese term meaning automation. In which machinery automatically inspects
• each item after producing it, ceasing production and notifying humans if a defect is
• detected.
•
• Standard Allowed Minutes (SAM): This is the amount of time allowed to perform a
• given task (e.g., a sewing operation) as determined by engineering. Standard Allowed
• Hours SAH is the time expressed in hours and Standard Allowed Minutes SAM is the time
• expressed in minutes.
•
• Personal Fatigue and Delay (PFD): PFD allowance is the adjustment done to the normal
• time to obtain the standard time for the purpose to recover the lost time due to personal
• needs, fatigue, and unavoidable delays. By providing a small increase to the normal time
• in each cycle, the worker can still be able to cover lost time and complete the work
• assigned to him.
•
• Throughput Time: The time period required for a material, part, or subassembly to pass
• through the manufacturing process.
•
 Lean
Definition of Lean
•
•The popular definition of Lean Manufacturing and the Toyota Production System
•usually consists of the following (Wilson, 2009, p. 29-30).
•1. It is a comprehensive set of techniques which when combined allows you to
•reduce and eliminate the wastes. This will make the company leaner, more
•flexible and more responsive by reducing waste.
•2. Lean is the systematic approach to identifying and eliminating waste through continuous improvement by flowing the product
or service at the pull of your customer in pursuit of perfection (Nash, Poling and Ward, 2006, p. 17).
•
•According to (Drew et al., 2004, p 25) the lean operating system consists of the
•following:
•• A lean operating system follows certain principles to deliver value to the
•customer while minimizing all forms of loss.
•• Each value stream within the operating system must be optimized individually
•from end to end.
•• Lean tools and techniques are applied selectively to eliminate the three sources
•of loss: waste, variability and inflexibility.
•Thus the organization who wants to implement lean should have strong customer focus,
•should be willing to remove wastes from the processes they operate on daily basis and
•should have the motivation of growth and survival .
 Wastes
Kind of Wastes
•According to David Magee, (Magee, 2007, p. 67) different kinds of wastes in a process
•can be categorized in following categories. These wastes reduce production efficiency,
•quality of work as well as increase production lead time.
•1. Overproduction – Producing items more than required at given point of time
•i.e. producing items without actual orders creating the excess of inventories
•which needs excess staffs, storage area as well as transportation etc.
•2. Waiting – Workers waiting for raw material, the machine or information etc. is
•known as waiting and is the waste of productive time. The waiting can occur in
•various ways for example; due to unmatched worker/machine performance,
•machine breakdowns, lack of work knowledge, stock outs etc.
•3. Unnecessary Transport – Carrying of work in process (WIP) a long distance,
•insufficient transport, moving material from one place to another place is known
•as the unnecessary transport.
•4. Over processing – Working on a product more than the actual requirements is
•termed as over processing. The over processing may be due to improper tools or
•improper procedures etc. The over processing is the waste of time and machines
•which does not add any value to the final product.
 Wastes
• 5. Excess Raw Material - This includes excess raw material, WIP, or finished
• goods causing longer lead times, obsolescence, damaged goods, transportation
• and storage costs, and delay. Also, the extra inventory hides problems such as
• production imbalances, late deliveries from suppliers, defects, equipment
• downtime, and long setup times.
• 6. Unnecessary Movement – Any wasted motion that the workers have to
perform
• during their work is termed as unnecessary movement. For example movement
• during searching for tools, shifting WIP etc.
• 7. Defects – Defects in the processed parts is termed as waste. Repairing defective
• parts or producing defective parts or replacing the parts due to poor quality etc.
• is the waste of time and effort.
 Wastes
• 8. Unused Employee Creativity – Loosing of getting
better ideas, improvement,
• skills and learning opportunities by avoiding the
presence of employee is termed
• as unused employee creativity (Liker, 2003, p. 29).
Continue with your practical
exercises….

Thank you!