lOMoARcPSD|9581471

COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATION

By P.N .NGUGI

MSC/ BSc / RN
BASED ORGANIZATION
Table of Contents

1. Introduction to community based organization ------------------------1-4

2. Organizations’ structure --------------------------------------------------5-24

3. Classification of organizations -----------------------------------------25-27

4. Organization goals ---------------------------------------------------------28-34

5. Organization culture ------------------------------------------------------35-39

6.Change in community based organizations ----------------------------40-46

7.Leadership in community based organization ------------------------47-53

8.motivation in community based organization-------------------------54-59

9.management of community based organization----------------------60-63

10.Organization function------------------------------------------------------64-67

11.Capacity building in community based organization-----------------68-70

12.Conflict in community based organization-----------------------------71-75

13. Power and politics in community based organization--------------76-78

14.Emerging trends in community based organization------------------79-81

 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATION

General Objectives

 By the end of this module unit, the trainee should be

able to:

 -Understand the role of Community Based

Organization in the society.

 -Appreciate the importance of organization in

community development activities

 -Appreciates the importance of partnerships in

community Development Activities

 -Manage community development organizations in

the society
Introduction

This model unit is intended to equip the

trainee with the knowledge, skills and
attitudes that will enable him/her to
indicate and manage community based
organizations.
Definition of terms

 It refers to a geographical locality and its residents

 Jensen (1939) mentions that a community is used in everyday

language to refer to a number of persons who have similar
interest e.g. sporting community, business community

 Kayman (1972) indicates that a community

 refers to the local community/locality

 Wilson (1912) he saw communities as a complex of economic

and social processes in which individuals find the
satisfactions that are not supplied within their home.
organization

Warren (1955) points out that organizations are

resources which enables members of a community
to work together to meet their needs.

Wiledon (1970) views an organization as individuals

in a given situation who usually agree to work
together for attainment of certain objectives

Organizations are also viewed as a collection of

individuals formed into a coordinated system of
specialized activities for the purpose of certain goals
over some extended period of

Time achieving even tough individual membership

may change.
Community Based organizations

Theses are social agencies that

consist of a collection of individuals
formed into a coordinated system
of specialized activities for the
purpose of achieving certain goals
over some extended period of time
even though individual membership
may change and they are
specifically based within a single
local community.
Like other non- profits, they are

often run on a voluntary basis and

are self funded.
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

 Within community based organizations,

there are many variations in terms of size
and organizational structure. Some are
formally incorporated with a written
constitution and a board of directors (also
known as committee), while others are
much smaller and are more informal.

 The recent evolution of community based

organizations in developing countries has
strengthen the view that these “bottom- up”
organizations are more effective
addressing local needs than the larger
charitable organizations.
Development of C.B.O`s (KENYA)

 In Kenya CBO`s emerged from the social

welfare organizations which was
established in 1946. It was headed by Mr.
Tom Asqwith as a commissioner of social
welfare.
 In 1954, the social welfare organization
became one of the departments of the
 newly crated ministry until around 1963,
this department encouraged self help
groups
 CBO`s grows to take control of most of the
self help groups organized organizations
and work for the benefit of the community
they work in.
1.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF
COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS

 Community based organizations have its

outs in American social work where social
work schools initially taught case work,
group work and community organization
 Smith (1979) notes than case work was

also taught by social schools in Britain

 but interest in community organization

came from field work practice rather than
from social work theory.
 Biddle and Biddle (1965) notes that the

emphasizes of community organizations is

structured in the sense that it perceives
the community as made up of groups
 and organizations whose operations needs

to be coordinated.
 Community based organizations are also
emphasizes the raising of funds to support
their work Rothman points out that it was
not until 1947 that serious analysis of the
theoretical aspects of community
organizations was started which gave rise
to NGO`s and community based
organizations
Community based organizations
activities

Some of the activities carried out by

CBO`s include the
following;community
betterment
economic in terms of improving the
through set up of a community
initiating developmental
activities,
health and social welfare through
 initiating health facilities and
 Goodwater systems,
 home improvements due to improved
source of income and life style,
 better business which are in most cases
profit oriented,
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

Cont..

-organizations are registered by the

department of social services
, under the ministry of gender, sports
and social services.

it’s a source of employment to the

young people in that they can be self-
employed,
due to joint efforts between the
members, a better farming can be
achieved which can led to high
production and Social enjoyment in
that some of the members will enjoy
leadership roles within the
community based organizations
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNITY
BASED ORGANIZATIONS

 Typically, community based organizations have

the following characteristic;
 They are non-profit making organizations and are
permanent,
 They are community owned i.e. their survival
depend on the support offered by the
communities they serve,
 CBO`s must register with the ministry of gender,
sports and social services in their respective
district offices,
 They are autonomous (dependent),
 They foster peoples self reliance,
 They emphasize on community participation
because they are owned by the community,
 They initiate new and small scale projects,
 They develop human resources including local
leadership and
 They focus on community level development.
REVISIONQUESTIONS
1. Define the following terms;
a) Community
b) Organization
c) Community Based organization

2. Discuss in details the historical background of

community based organization
3. Explain the characteristics of community based
organization.
ORGANIZATIONS’ STRUCTURE
Specific Objectives

By the end of this topic, the trainee

should be able to:
a)Explain the meaning of organization
b)Discuss types of organization
 Discuss importance of organizational

structures in the society

 Explain the importance of policy in

community based organization.

 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

INTRODUCTION

 Farnham and Horton defined organizations

as social contracts created by groups in a
society to achieve specific purpose by
means of plan and coordinated activities.

 These activities involve using human

resources to act in association with their in
animate resources in order to achieve the
aims of the organization.
 They are also defined as a collection of
individuals formed into a co-ordinated
system of specialized activities for the
purpose of achieving certain goals over
some extended period of time even tough
individuals may change.

 Robins in his book “the reality of

management’ third edition defines an
organization as a consciously coordinated
social unit composed of two or moa
people for the achievement of some
common explicit, purpose or goal through
division of about and function and through
hierarchy of authority and responsibility.
Meaning of organization

 They pervade social life, people are born,

brought up, live and die in an organization
i.e. hospital, families among others. People
are socialized and reared in organization
man cannot avoid organizations, whenever
people think of alternatives turn out to be
organizations.

 They came into being in one or two ways.

They enable objectives to be achieved that
could not be achieved by the efforts of
individuals on their own organizations are
an integrated part of society involving both
public and private sectors.
 There are many different types of
organizations which are set up to serve as a
number of different purposes and to meet
a variety of needs. Organizations come in
all forms, shapes and sizes. The structure,
management and functioning of
organizations vary because of differences
in he nature and type of organization, their
perspective/goals and objectives and the
behavior of people who work with them
Common factors in an organization

 Despite the differences among varies

organizations there are at least three
common factors in any organization
 people
 objectives
 structure
 It is the interaction of people who help achieve
objectives which form the basis of any organization.
Some form of structure is needed by which people’s
interactions and efforts and efforts are channeled
and co-ordinate. However some process of
management is required so that the activities of the
organization and the efforts of its members are
directed and controlled towards the pursuit of
objective.

 The actual effectiveness of the organizations depends

upon the quality of its people, its objectives and
structure and the resources available to it.
 There are two broad categories of these resources
 non-human-physical asset, materials and facilities
and
 Human-members abilities and influence and their
managements.
TYPES OF
ORGANIZATION

 There are two major types of organizations;

 Formal and
 informal organizations

 a) Formal organizations
 This is the planned coordination of the activities of a
number of people for the achievement of some
formal, explicit purpose of people for the division of
labour and function and through hierarchy of
authority and responsibilities.
 The formal organization is;
 Deliberately planned and created
 Cornered with the coordination of activities
 Hierarchically structured with stated objectives, and
 Based on certain principles such as the specification
of tasks and defined relationships of authority and
responsibility.
 The formal organization can be seen as a coalition
of individual with a number of sub-coalitions.
Membership of the coalition depends upon the type
of
 organization but would include
managers,administrators,workers,union officials,
leaders of interest
groups,customers,clients,patrons,donors
 specialist, consultants and representatives of
external agencies.

 Politically all the large organizations of the modern

society such as factories office complexes
supermarkets and schools are formal structures, to
an extent, formal organizations in modern societies
have taken over supplemented functions previously
performed by formally kinship and community
groups.
Informal organization

 An informal organization develops and exists

within all formal organizations. They are
freely created by social group’s relationships
outside and inside formal organizations.
 They arise from interaction people working
in the organization their psychological and
social needs and the development of groups
within their own relationship and norms of
behavior irrespective of those defined with in
the formal structure;
 the informal structure is flexible and loosely
structured
 relationships may be left undefined
 Membership is spontaneous and with varied
degrees of involvement.
Functions of an informal organization

 It provides satisfaction of the members, social

needs and serve of personal identity and
belonging
 It provides for additional channels of
communication for example- through the
`grapevine` information of importance to
particular
 members is communicated quickly.
 It provides a means of motivation-for example
through status, social interaction, arty in
routines or tedious and informal methods of
work
 It provides a feeling, stability and security
through informal norms of
 behavior can exercise a form of control over
members
 It provides a means of highlighting deficiencies
or weakness in the formal organization-for
example areas of duties or responsibilities not
covered in job descriptions or outdated systems
and procedure.
 It may also be used when formal methods
would take long or not be appropriate to deal
with an unusual or unforeseen situation.
 The informal organization therefore has an
important influence on the morale, motivation,
job satisfaction and performance of the staff.
 It can provide members with greater
opportunity to use their initiative and creativity
in both personal and organizational
development.
Basic components of an organization

 Any organization can be described broadly interims

of operating component and an administrative
component. The operational core-this is concerned
with direct performance of the technical and
productive operations and carrying out of actual of
a task activities of the organizations e.g. people
teaching a classroom, treating a patient, cooking
meals in a hotel, serving in a bank, repairing
potholes on the road among others.

 Operation support-its concerned with the technical

or productive process but closely related to the
actual flow of operational work e.g. people working
in quality control, work study, progress planning,
store keeping, technical services, work
maintenance etc.
 Organization support-it is concerned with
provision of services for the whole
 organization including the operational core but
which are usually outside the actual flow of
operational worker people working in
personnel, medical services etc. Top
management-is concerned with broad objectives
and policies, strategic decisions, the work of
the organization as a whole and interactions
with external environment e.g. managing
director,governors,management team, chief
executive, board of directors and council
members. Middle management-is concerned
with coordinated and integration of activities
and providing links with operational support
staff and organizational support staff between
the operational core and top management.
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Comparison of formal and informal

organizations

characteristics Formal organizations Informal organizations

1.Structure Planned Spontaneous

a) Origin Rational Emotional

b) Rationale Stable Dynamic

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2.positon terminology job Role

3.goals Profitability/service to society Members satisfaction

4.influences Position Authority Personality

a)base Top-down Power
b)type Bottom- up

5.Control mechanism Threat of firing, demotions Physical or social

sanctions (norms)
6.communication Formal channel, well defined, follow formal Grapevine
a)channels lines, Slow Poorly defined across
b)network high regular channel
c)speed Fast
d)accurac a) low
y 8 ©
7.charting the Organization chart sociogram
organization

8.miscellanous All individuals in a group work Only those acceptable

a)individuals Prescribed by job Arise spontaneously
b)inter personal description assigned by organization Functional Result of membership
relations duties or positions agreement
c)leadership role Personal
d) basis of characteristic,
interaction ethic background
e) basis of cohesiveness
attachment
THEORIES OF ORGANIZATION

 Cognitional theories evolved during the

first half of the 20th centaury. They are the
backbone of the field of organizational
studies, which has its objectives in the
investigation of organization, particularly
human organizations, in order to better
understand their structure, functions and
properties for the purpose of enhancing
productivity and satisfaction.
 It encompasses the systematic study and
careful application of knowledge about
how people act within organizations. They
include;
Bureaucratic and systems theories

 The theory is associated with Max Weber. The

word bureaucracy is carried from a combination
of Greek and Latin phrases. The Greek word
`bureau` meaning table and chair. The word
`cracy` means rule, Weber laid down the classical
or bureaucratic model of organizational theory.
His model is a functionalist one; he maintained
that bureaucracy is the most functionally efficient
form of organization even though it can
sometimes operate in a rather inhuman
way.Bureacracies is formal organizations generally
cognizable by certain characteristics.
 He constructed an ideal type of bureaucracy to
show what these characteristics are. They include:
  Specialization-the existence of different offices
(or positions) governed by rule, the purpose of
which is to fulfill a specific function or functions.
 Hierarchy-the hierarchical organizations of offices that are some positions have
more authority and status than others
 Rules-officials are required to observe established, usually written rules and
procedures
 Records-management is based on files and records and is used with the
assistance of office staff
 Officials-the appointment of trained personnel to occupy roles in the
bureaucracy
 Impersonality-officials and clients are subject to the same rules and procedures
 Public and private-organizational matters are governed by publicly stead rues,
not by private preferences.

 Webber saw the growth of bureaucratic organizations as a major example of the

application of rational thought to practical problems. He regarded the triumph
of a nationality as a characteristic feature of modernworld.Another of its
manifestation was the massive development of science and technology, above
all it involves a commitment to performing the functions the officials is
appointed to do, and not to any powerful person or patron who might want to
interfere with the officials course duty. It was important for Weber to make this
point because in the middle age, this principle did not apply.

 However, Weber’s theory can be citied in the sense that there is an implicit
contradiction in his bureaucratic functionalism and his more usually
emphasized or conflict. Again he did not fully develop the perspective that as
well as fulfilling useful functions, organizations are also frequently the focus of
conflict between groups.
Organic system theory

 ) This theory was developed by Burns and Stalker

(1961).It refers to the type of organization that most
obviously contrasts with the bureaucratic
organization.
 Burns and Stalker contrast organic system with what
they call mechanistic systems. Organic systems
according to Burns and Stalker are characterized by
a less rigid division of labour than mechanistic ones,
they are less rulebound, less hierarchical and more
open to the influence of the informal group.
 The skill and experience of the individual can be
communicated literally (sideways) across the
network of those involved in the task.
 The team as a whole shares power and
responsibility, overall, the organic approach shows
a more subtle awareness of the complex nature and
effects of interaction, formal and informal than doe’s
bureaucratic approach.
 Organic approach is often considered appropriate
for relatively high level technical or scientific
employees in; say the electronic industry- for
example a team of computer programmers.

 Although the bureaucratic or mechanistic, and

organic systems models of organizations are to
some extent, in competition with each other,
there are circumstances in which one model may
be more appropriate than the other. Burns and
stalker suggest that bureaucracy is often suitable
for the pursuit of clear goals in stable conditions
such as producing commodity foam a safe and
established market, and that an organic system is
appropriate to less stable conditions which
precise goals may still be developing such as
electronic research.
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

c) Scientific management theory

Fredrick W. Taylor’s theory of scientific management reflects the same
principle as Webbers bureaucratic theory.Taylor, an American
contemporary of Weber (1865-1917) believed that in the same way there is
a best machine for each job, so there is the best working method by which
people should undertake their jobs. He considered that all work processes
could be analyzed into discrete tasks. Each job was broken down into
component parts, each part timed, the parts re-arranged into the most
efficient method of working.

Taylor was a strong believer in the rational-economic needs concept of

motivation. He believed that if management worked on his ideas, work
would become more satisfying and profitable for all concerned. Workers
would be motivated by obtaining the highest possible e\wages through
working in the most efficient and productive way. Taylor was determined to
find more efficient methods and procedures for coordination and control of
work. He set out a number of principles to guide management. These
principles are:
 the development of a true science for each persons work
 the scientific training, selection and development of the workers
 cooperation with the workers to ensure work is carried out in the
prescribed way
 the division of work and responsibility between management and
the
workers.

Taylor puts forward the idea of functional foremanship under which

workers would be responsible simultaneously to eight different
specialists first time supervisors.Taylors theory as making the work
boring and require little skill,

d) Human relations theory

This theory originated as a reaction against Taylor’s scientific
management theory. From 1927-1932 as a series of studies was mounted
into worker productivity at the Hawthorne works of the western
electricity company in Chicago. The researchers led by Elton Mayo had
initially been influenced by Taylor and the area of enquiry was actually
suggested by the work. They wanted to find the optimum level of
illumination and other environmental factors to maximize production.
They found out that the relationship between the variables of
illumination and production was virtually non-existent. In one of the
studies in which the workers were placed in a control room in lighting
conditions equivalent to moon light, they still maintained reasonable
level of production. It only fell off when illumination was so reduced
that they could not see.
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

Ultimately, Hawthome experiments were of outstanding importance

both because of the new theory of industrial relation they suggested,
and by virtue of their contribution to a better understanding of social
scientific methods, specifically that of observation.

The researchers found out that the productive performance of the

workers was affected by social factor as well as materials ones such as
the level of illumination. The social factor at work in this
case was the interest of the research team in the workers.
Unexpectedly this seemed to stimulate them to greater efforts than
otherwise. The presence of researchers in a factory is however rare.

Mayo team also did some experiments that showed that informal
relationship of the workers themselves in the most social variable
affecting production. This experiment involved observation of a group of
14 men working in the bank wiring room.

e) Social technical theory

This theory attempts to combine both technical and social factors
affecting work so as t bring about the most effective overall
performance. Many were summarizes three major points suggested by
socio-technical system to theories to achieve this end;

i) The individual must have some power to control and regulate her or
his work; he/she should be able to adopt his or her own standard of
work both to the expectations and demands of others and to the
changing work situation generally
ii) The job should be both varied and coherent pattern; it should be
linked meaningfully to the rest of production process and should also
provide the workers with status in the community
iii)this theory has however been criticised as merely `making
exploration more bearable`.It is said that it provides the necessary
ideological fig leaves to cover the still basically exploitative nature of
capitalist production.

f) Functional Theory

a. System theory by Talco Parsons

Parson’s organizational theory combines elements of Weberian
functionalism with those of systems theory. He maintains that
organizations have goals, but describe them as potentially much more
flexible and capable of adapting than does Weber.

He treats organizations virtually as though they were small scale

societies, he states tat an organization is like an animal body made up
of so many different parts which are interdependent (if one part
collapses, the whole becomes non-functional) he says that the various
parts of the organization have certain needs that have to be met for
survival, members of organization. He pays more attention to the
capacity of organizations to interact with one another and with the
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

environment in general. He says that an organization that cannot adapt

is not likely to survive.
Parsons also recognizes that organizations must, in some way, meet
peoples expressive as well as their instrumental needs. He considers
these needs to be accommodated within he terms of the organization
pre-set goals and certainly not as ends in themselves. In reality, the
individuals and groups that make up organizations often disagree much
more than Parsons is willing to concede.

b.Social action and interactions theories

Social action theory
David Silverman develops this theory by
describing the meanings that
individual attach to and find in organizations. He claims that people and
not organizations have goals at he is appreciative of Parsons. Attempt
to conceive organizations in terms of change and development and he
himself contentualize action within a wider institutional and social
environment.

Ralph Glasser also gives an importance of understanding how human

behavior, particularly in its emotional rather than its
rational aspects can affect organizations. In a television documentary
(1980) Glasser tells how the olive producers of the Italian rural village
of San Georgia refused to use co-operative olive press-even tough
their existed good
`rational` economic arguments for doing so. Instead they decided to
take their olives for pressing to the owners of private presses who were
too wealthy.Glasser suggests tat the olive farmers acted in this way
because they traditional relationship, based on established expectation
and fiduciary (trust) with private press operators.

c.Conflict theories
Marxist conflict theory
Clergy and Dunkenty reminded
us of what should really be
obvious-that the
reason for existence of most organizations is the need to organize the labour
process that this involves the control of the labour process in industrial and
office work as one means of controlling the work force because it prevents
them form understanding the nature and the whole production process They
differentiate not only between buyers and sellers but also between working
groups of different power in the market. Thus they expect at length the reason
for the particular exploitation of female labour.

2.4 ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

This is the division of work among members of the organization and the
coordination of their activities so that they are directed towards the goals and
objectives of the organization. The structure is the pattern of relationship
among positions in the organizations and among members of the organization.
The structure makes possible the application of the process of management
and creates a frame work of order and command through which the activities
of the organization can be planed, organized directed and controlled. The
structure defines tasks and responsibilities, work roles and relationships and
channels of communication.
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

It’s important to review continually the structure of any formal organizations

to ensure it is the most appropriate form and in keeping with its growth and
development.

Objectives of an organization structure

a) The economic and efficient performance of an organization and level of
resource utilization
b) Monitoring the activities of the organization
c) Accounting for areas of work undertaken by groups and individual
members of the organization.
d) Coordination of different parts of the organization and different
areas of
work.
e) Flexibility in order to respond to features demands and development
and to adopt to changing environmental influences
f) The social satisfaction of members working in an organization.
Levels of organization
Organizations are layed with different responsibilities, authority and policy and
decision making are carried out by different people at varying levels of
seniority throughout the organization structure.
There are 3 interrelated levels in an organization

i) Hierarchical structure/technical level

The 1st level is known as the technical level this level is concerned with specific
operation and discrete tasks, with the actual job or tasks to be done and with
performance of technical function e.g. physical production of gods in a
manufacturing firm of actual processing of teaching in an educational
institution.

ii) Managerial level

It is concerned with coordination and integration of work at the technical level
i.e. the decision at this level relates to the resources necessary for the
performance of the technical function and to the beneficiaries of the product
or services provided members at this level are concerned with:
a. -meditating between the organization and its external environment e.g.
the users of the organization product and procurement resources.
b. -the administrative of internal affairs of the organization including the
control of operation of the technical function.
iii) Community level/institutional level
It is concerned with broad objectives and the work of the organization as a
whole the managerial level are interactive with this level decisions at this level
are concerned with the selection of operations and the development oft the
organization in relation to external agencies and the wider social environment.
Division of work by major purpose/function

Managing director

Personnel

Research &
1 deve lopment ProductProduction
2 Marketing
Product 3 Finance
Downloaded by er Ngugi (pePtenjogu@y ahoo.com) M F
Pet
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

DIVISION OF WORK BY PRODUCT/SERVICE

Managing director

personnel

Product 3
Product 1 Product 2

ELEMENTS /DIMENSION OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE

Specialization-concerned with division of labour and allocation of task among
different
positions. It should have common characteristics that forms a logical link
between
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

activities involved e.g. division of work by major purpose, division of work by

product or
service, division of work by location.

Standardization-the standardization of procedures, (rules of definition that has

regularity
of occurrence and propose to cover all circumstances). This is a basic aspect of
an
Organization structure.

Formalization-this denotes the extent to which roles, procedurers, instructions

and
communications are set out in written documents. Highly
formalized organizations
carefully certify each job describing the specific job details and ensure
conformity to the
job description. Less formalized organizations have loosely defined jobs and do
not
control work behavior.
Centralization-this is concerned with the locus of authority to make decisions
affecting
the organization, determined by the last person whose ascent is necessary
before
legitimate action can be taken.

Factors affecting centralization:

i) Size of the organization-the larger the size of the organization the more the
delegation of authority
ii) Technology-this refers to the way of doing things, in routine technology an
individual performs the same task over and over again while in non-
routine technology the tasks are not repeated.
iii) Environmental conditions-if the organization is working in an unsteady
environment there has to be more delegation to enable it cope with changes
and adapt to the changing environment.
iv) Political order of the country-when we have political stability the more
delegation we have;
 Configuration-this is the shape of the structure for example
long or short chain f command.
 Tradionalism-this is the extent to which an organization si
standarised by customs or rules.

Principles of structuring organizations

These are guidelines on the structuring of organization proper application of
principles of organization can help improve organizational performance.
These principles include;
a) The principle of objective-every organization and every part of the
organization must be an expresson of the purpose of the undertaking
concerned or it’s meaningless and therefore redundant.
b) The principle of specialization-the activities of any member should be
confined as far as possible to the performance of a single function.
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

c) The principle of coordination-the prpose of organizing person has

distinguished from the purpose of undertaking. It is to facilitate
coordination i.e. unity of effort.
d) The principle of authority-in any organized group the supreme authority
must rest some where there should be a clear line of authority to every
individual in the group.
4. POLICY MAKING IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS
In Kenya CBO`s are required to confirm to the requirements of the law. This
means that if CBO`s are formed they have to observe the constitutional, legal
and statutory requirements, if they have to operate.

After the community based organizations are formed, the members as well as
their leader they have an obligation to register in the relevant department in
the ministry of sports gender and social services.

Stages in Registration of community based organizations

The registration of CBO`s is a process that involves various stages. This includes

a) The community based organizations must first develop a constitution

which stipulates how the conduct of the members and activities to be
carried out in order to achieve the set objective the minutes of the
meeting that culminated or led to the formation of the organization
must be well kept as well as the list of group member.

b) The list of members, their identify card no and signature should be

submitted to the social development office. In Kenya registration of CBO
takes place in the district of the origin.

c) The members should pick registration forms from relevant offices and fill
the required information.

d) The team leader should make five copies of the registration form and to
attach the following;
 the constitution of the CBO
 the minutes
 list of members, their ID no their signature
 a registration fee which is currently ksh 700

Community based organizations constitution

The CBO constitution is the supreme law that establishes the aim organs of
CBO.
It outlines the following;
e) name of the community based organizations
f) location of the community based organizations
g) purpose of the community based organizations
h) main objective of the community based organizations
i) membership of the community based organizations
j) subscription of the community based organizations
k) obligation of the members community based organizations
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h) right of the members community based organizations

i) suspension of the community based organizations
j) termination of the membership community based organizations
k) meeting procedures of the community based organizations
l) management committee (composition, terms of refernce,election)
m) eligibility of becoming a member
n) funds and assets/sources ,use and control
o) accounts and audits
p) rules and by-laws
q) arbitration
r) amendment of the constitution
s) dissolution of community based organizations
Guiding principles of community based organizations
Are values that are intended to guide or describe the CBO in their operations?
This code of conduct was formulated by national council of NGO`s in 1995,
which includes the following;
i)Probity-refers to whole hearted honesty and virtues. It requires CBO`s and
NGO`s to perform their duties honestly and fairly not above any privilege or to
provide to any person.
ii)Self regulation-means taking commands from authoritative source the self
and rejecting all attempts.

It requires NGO`s and CBO`s in the existence of self regulation to strive for
personal and political independence, appraise and evaluate their conducts to
be pen to learning and change and to be self reliant and vigilant.
The importance of self reliance of CBO`s
 It protects the independence of the CBO`s sector from the state and
other members of the society who do not belong to that sector.
 It establishes ethical standards and the manner of its meaning
those who do not abed by the established standards
 It enables an organization to achieve its main visions.
iii) Justice
Anything that measurers up to the truth and reality is what is widely
interpreted as justice it means fain representation of factor and making
available to everyone that which is his/hers due
NGO`s and CBO`s are required to uphold the rights of all and particularly the
disadvantaged.
They should practice fairness and equalty of opportunity for all regardless of
nationality, ethnic, gender and religious background.
The organization action should be, need oriented, partial and just.
iv) service-means performance f labour for the benefit of another
this is the desire to promote the happiness of mankind through a commitment
to do kind and charitable work
CBO`s and NGO`s can exercise these principles by doing the following:
a) Striving to improve their service delivery
b) Promoting community organization and participation
c) Educating the public through sharing the information
d)Fastening g opportunities for those being served to influence both the type
and delivery of the services.

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v)Cooperation-refers to the act of operating together within the organization in

order to achieve a common goal. It emphasizes fellowship in gain, loss, in
honor or dishonor.
This is called parteniring; in this case information and experience should be
shared.
vi) prudence-all NGO`s in exercise of this principle are expected to act after
careful consideration and be well informed and sensible decision should be
given priority
Good management practices, creativity, innovation should be upheld.
vii)respect-means the recognition of work, rights and the potentiality of
others.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. a) Define organizational structure
b) Discuss on the types of organization

2. Discuss any two theories of organization

3. Explain on the importance of the organizational structure in the society.

4. Explain the importance of policy in community based organization

5. Explain five features of a good organizational structure

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CHAPTER THREE

CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANIZATIONS
Specific Objectives
By the end of this topic the trainee should be able to;
a) Discuss the reasons for classification of organizations
b) Discuss various types of classification

INTRODUCTION
Classification of organization is a way of differentiating one origination from
another in terms of social life, people in it, the way it’s brought up, which
include, hospital, families among others. People are socialized and reared in
organization, man cannot avoid organizations, whenever people think of
alternatives turn out to be organizations. They are classified in the following
manner;

a) Classification by major purpose

This is a common classification. It consists of:
i) Business firms which is referred to as economic organizations
ii) Arms, trade unions, and police force
iii) Clubs and societies
iv) Local authorities and hospitals
v) Churches
However this distinction tends to lack refinement and not all organizations can
fit simply in one classification. Many organizations serve more than one goal.

b) Classification by forms of power/system of compliance and involvement

Etzion classified organization according to power and involvement.
vi)According to power
He identified three forms of power;
 i) Coercive- this kind of power relays on the use of threats or physical
sanctions or force in case an individual fails to comply e.g. controlling
the need for food or comfort. Organization under this kind of power
includes juveniles, detentions prisons law enforcement agencies.
 Remunerative- this kind of power involves the manipulation of material
resources and rewards e.g. through salaries and wages, organizations
under this kind of power include post offices, restaurants, retail stores,
trade unions etc.
 Normative power-this kind relies in their location and manipulationof
symbolic rewards e.g. esteem and rewards. Organization under this kind
of power includes churches, local political parties, local authority, and
recreation departments.
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ii) Degree of involvement

Etzion classified organization based in the degree f involvement. This is the
degree of commitment of memenres of the organization, this kinds of
involvement occurs where members are involved against their wishes. There is
a strong negative orientation towards the organization.

d) Calculative involvement
This occurs where attachment to the organization is motivated by extrinsic
rewards, there is either a negative orientation or a low positive orientation
towards the organization.
Morale-this is based on the individual’s belief in, and value placed on the goals
of the organization. There is a high positive orientation towards the
organization.

Classification by the function of the organization

By Talcott Parsons and Daniel & Robert Kuhn-it is associated by the scholars
and their kind of classification includes:
a) Economic functions organization-they engage in economic activities that
help in earning a living n the society.
b)Political function organization-they are concerned with changing or adapting
circumstances pertaining to achieving certain goals in a particular society, they
seek to assure and increase the society’s capacity to accomplish desired ends.
This organization seeks to coordinate activities in society and maintain peace
and stability.
c)integrated function organization-they serve to settle conflicts in the society,
they direct motivation. The basic rule is to ensure justice, peace and stability.
d)Pattern maintenance organizations they provide societal continuity through
educational, cultural and expressive activities they are concerned with long
term societal values, behavioural patterns, creation of knowledge culture etc.
They create and maintain vale systems, by furthering of knowledge and making
suitable life patterns.
e)Classification based on primary beneficiary-these were formulated by Blau and
Scott, they are 4 and are classified on the basis on who benefits i.e. prime
beneficiary, they include;
f)Mutual benefit organization-this is where the primary beneficiary is the
membership such as political parties, trade unions etc.
g)Business organizations-this is where the primary beneficiaries is the business
owner.
Their concern is the return and not the nature of the output.
C) Service organization-this is where the client group s the primary beneficiary.
d) Commonwealth organizations-this is where the primary beneficiary is the
public at large, they are designed to give goods and services to the general
public regardless of their economic status
NB: It is not easy to find a comprehensive classification into which all
organizations can be simply and satisfactorily categorized and a degree of
generalization, assumption and qualification is required.

REVISION QUESTIONS
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1. Discuss the reasons for classification of organizations.

2. Explain the various types of classification

CHAPTER FOUR

ORGANIZATION GOALS
Specific Objective
By the end of his topic, the trainee should be able to;
a) Explain the meaning of organization goals
b) Discuss the importance of organizational goals
c) Formulate the organizational goals
d) Evaluate the organizational goals

INTRODUCTION
4.1 Meaning of organizational goals
A goal-is a future expectations some desired future state. Its something the
organization is striving to achieve the meaning of a goal s however subject to a
number of interpretations.
A goal is a broad sense-this refers t the overall purpose of the organizations
e.g. to produce television sets.
A goal s a specific sense-refers to more specific desired accomplishment e.g. to
produced and sell a given number of range of television sets within a given
period of time.
The goal of the organizations will determine the nature of its inputs and
output, the series of the activities through which the outputs are achieved and
interactions with its external environment.

2. Importance of organizations goals in society

 Goals provide a standard of performance, they focus attention on the
activities of the organization and the direction of the effort of its
members
 Goals provide a basis for planning and management control related to
the activities of the organization
 Goals provide guidelines for decision making and justification for actions
taken, they reduce uncertainty in decision making and give a defense
against possible critics.
 Goals influence the structure of the organization and help them
determine the nature of technology employed. The manner in which the
organization is structured will determine what is being achieved.
 Goals help us to develop commitment of individuals and groups to the
activities of the organization; they focus attention on purposeful
behavior and provide a basis of motivation and reward.
 Goals show how the organization is really like its true nature and
character both for members and external public.
 Goals serve as a basis for the evaluation of change and organization
development.
 Goals are the basis for objective and policies of the organization.
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4.3 Formulation of organizational goals

Goals are important features of work organization to be effective goals should
be emphasize, clearly stated and communicated to all members of the
organization.
The clarification and formulation of goals is the basis for cooperate planning
and programig, budgeting system (ppbs) approach to decision making.
In order to be successful the prior goals of a business organization may be seen
as follows;
i) to continue in existence that is to survey
ii) to maintain growth and development
iii) to make profit

Dickers have suggested and key areas in which goals should be set in terms of
performance and results.
iv)Market standing-for example share of market standing range of products and
markets, distribution, pricing customers, loyalty and satisfaction.
v)Productivity-for example optimum use of resources use of techniques such as
operational research to help guide alternative care of action, the ration of
contributed vale total revenue.
iii)Innovation-for example innovation to reach marketing goals development
arises from technological advancement, new processes and improvements in all
major areas of organizational activity.
iv)Physical and financial resources-for example physical facilities such as plant
machines, office and replacement of facilities supply of capital and budgeting,
planning for money neededc, provision supplies.
v)Manager performance and development-e.g. the direction of managers and
setting up their jobs.
vi) profitability- e.g. it forecasts and anticipates time scales, capital
investment policy.
vii)works performance and attitude-e.g. union relations the organization of
work employee’s relations.

Classification of organizational goals

Goals are classified into the following categories;
a) Classification by the concept of compliance
Etzioni classification goals in terms of their relationships with the concept of
compliance. These include;
viii)Order goals
He says that they are negative and attempt to place some kind of restriction
upon members of the organization and to prevent certain of behavior.
ii) Economic goals
They are concerned with the production of goods and services for the external
public.
iii) Cultural goals
They are concerned with symbolic objects and with creating or maintaining
value systems in society, social goals which serve the various needs of members
in an organization are classified under cultural goals.

b) Classification of goals as the outcome of bargaining

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According to Lyert and March, goals results from the outcome of bargaining
among members of a coalitions, they identify five organizational goals related
specifically to business firms.
i) Production goal
Related to minimizing variation in the range of production operation
ii) Inventory goal
These are related level of sales either in monetary terms or units. The sales go
provide some general criteria, the goals act as a buffer between production
and sales.
iii) Market share goals
Concerned with a measure of sales, effectiveness or with comparative success
i.e. it provides sales when there is a market

iv) Profit goals

It is linked to accounting procedures for determining for profits and loss. The
profit goal may be an inspiration relating to amount of monetary profit or
profit share or return on investments.

3) Classification of goals through a system view-

In this classification 4 main types of organization goals are identified
i) Consumer goals
ii) Product goals
iii) Operational goals
iv) Secondary goals

4) Classification through a general model

This is identified by gross audit gives at least appropriate to all types of
organizations.
i) Satisfactions of interest
Organizations exist to satisfy multiple interests of various people both
members of the organization and outsiders. Those interested are hard to
identify and overlapping.
ii) Output of service or goals
This involves the output of tangible and non tangible goods and services which
the organization makes available to the clients.
iii) Efficiency and profitability
This involves the efficient use of the available scarce input to get the desired
output. The relationship between input and output can be calculated in so
many ways one of them being profitability where both output and input can be
expressed in monetary terms.
iv) Investment in organizational viability
This involves diverting the input from the production of output to invest in
physical, human and organizational assets in order to maintain survival and
growth.

v) Mobilization of resources
Organizations must mobilize resources for inputs in order to reduce goods and
services or invest in viability
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Observation of codes
Codes includes both formal and informal rules developed by organizations and
patterns of behavior imposed by law, moral considerations and standards of
professional ethics, these kinds of goals are usually expressed in terms of
acceptable margins of deviation.

Rationality
These are goals expressed in terms of actions regarded as satisfactory in
considering desirability, feasibility and consistency.
Rationality should be applied in both technical and managerial considerations.
NB: all organizations have multiple goals and therefore it is difficult to develop
criteria of performance against such broadly based goals and they need to be
translated into more specific goals, capable of measuring in any particular
organization.

4.4 EVALUATION OF ORGANIZATION GOALS

Goals are evaluated using the SWOT analysis/common known as `WOTS UP`
which focuses on the strength,weakness,opportunites and threats facing the
organization, the swot study was developed by Ansofs.The SWOT analysis
provides convenient headings through which an organization can be studied.

A CASE STUDY
Swot analysis on an African airline, Kenya sky ways
1998. Kenya sky ways vision: to be a world class network
airline. Goals
 To achieve common standard of excellence with our
network partners
 To connect Kenyan and Africa to the world through
Nairobi
 To be sufficiently profitable, to finance our development whilst
improving the prosperity of shareholders, employers and the nation.

SWOT ANALYSIS
Strengths
 The location is near central Business District of Nairobi
 Technically qualified and competent staff in some areas
 Profitable airline
 Low cost compared to our international competitors
 High utilization of aircrafts
 Regional competitive edge
 Relatively modern fleet
 Designated national career
 Forex earner
 Owns skyways cargo company
 Third party handling
 Status and private company
 Support from shareholders
 Aviation safety and security
 Existence of maintenance facilities
 Distinctive product
 Alliance with Alpha airlines.
Weakness
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 Lack of consistency in the way we do things

 Equipments and supplies constraints
 Poor public relations/image
 Unexposed to modern airline management technique
 Underutilized experience
 High training cost in technical areas
 Managing staff expectations
 Size-small airline
 Financial control
 Management
 Too much bureaucracy
 Lack of trust
 Poor internal/external communication
 Compartmentalized management
 Poor attitudes
 Lack of recurrent training
 Lack of enthusiasm
 Grey areas in policy
 Management information
Opportunities
 Nairobi as regional rub
 Alliance with Alpha airlines and the benefit
 Africa poorly served-by airline industry
 Lucrative financial environment in Kenya
 IT development
Threats
 Competition
 Bilateral constrains
 Cost growth
 Success
 Lack of timely adaptation technology
 Loss of skilled staff
 Political climate in Kenya

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain the meaning of organizational goals.
2. Describe six reasons why an organization should have clearly set
goals.
3. As a community based organizer, describe
evaluation of
organizational goals.
4. Explain the three major classifications of organization goals.

CHAPTER FIVE

ORGANIZATION CULTURE
Specific Objective
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By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to;

a. Explain the meaning of organizational culture
b. Discuss factors that influence organization culture
c. Explain the importance of organizational culture in management of
social activities
d. Discuss the impact of organizational culture on the performance of
personnel.

INTRODUCTION
1. Meaning of organizational culture
Culture is the total of the inherited ideas, beliefs values and knowledge which
constitutes the shared basis of social action. This includes a total range of
activities and ideas of a group with shared traditions which are transmitted and
reinforced by members of the group e.g. artistic and social pursuit, expression
and taste valued by the organization such as its accepted and practiced manner
of dress etc.

Culture can also be defined as a collection of traditions, values, policies,

beliefs and attitudes that constitute as persuasive context for everything we do
and think in an organization.

TYPES OF ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE

1. power culture
This type of culture involves a small number of senior executive who have
power to give directives.
If is characterized by a belief in a strong and decisive stance.
2. Roles culture
This is concerned with bureaucratic procedures such as regulations and clearly
specified rules.
It is believed these procedures will stabilize the system.

3. Support culture
These types of culture are based on the belief that there should be a group
/community support for the people, which will foster integration and sharing of
values.
4. Achievements culture
This culture dwells on the premise that there is an atmosphere which
encourages self expression and a gearing for independence. Thus there is a
paradigm shift from ‘I am working for myself’ to that of “I am working for some
one else” and there is accent of emphasis of success.
There’s also a recognition of and reward for positive contribution.

5. Task Culture
In this culture, there is utilization of knowledge and technical competence
thus; there is an apparent emphasis on project teams and a job matching to
skills.
6. Location
Geographical and physical location of an organization can have outstanding
influences on the natural of culture.
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When an organization is based in a rural or urban centre there can be

influences on the type of customers and staff employed. The nature of services
provides the sense of distinctive identity and opportunities for development.

7. Management and staffing

Usually top executives have considerable influences on nature of the
organization culture, however, all members of staff help shape the dominant
culture of an organization irrespective of what the top management feel they
should do.
8. The environment
In order to be effective, the organization must be responsive to external
environmental influences. For example, if the org operates within a dynamic
environment, it requires a structure and culture that are sensitive and readily
adaptive to changes.
5.2 Factors influencing organization culture
This includes the reason and manner in which it was formed, its age,
philosophy and values of its owner and 1st senior managers Marjory
organization, new general of top management etc. This can influence culture
in that making changes can be difficulties.

Primary function of technology

The nature of the organizations business and its primary function influences
culture.
Things that may influence culture may include: range and quality of products
of services provided, the importance of reputation and type of customers.
The primary function of the organization will determine the nature of the
technological processes and the methods of work to be undertaken which in
turn also affect structure and culture.
Goals and objectives
Goals and objectives influences cultural because it is not very easy to
determine the extent to which emphasis is placed on long term survival/growth
and development. How much attention s given to avoiding risks and
uncertainties and how much concern is shown for broader social
responsibilities.
The combination of objectives and resultants strategies will influence culture
and may itself be influenced by culture.

Size
Large organizations usually have formalized structures and cultures.
When the size of an organization is increased separate departments and split –
site operation will emerge.
This may cause difficulties in communication and poor inter-departmental co-
ordination.

This implies that a rapid expansion or decline in size and rate of growth and
resultant changes in staffing will influence structure and culture.

Importance of Organization culture

1. culture helps to account for variations among
organizationsand managers both nationally and internationally
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2. culture helps to explain why different groups of people perceive things

in their own way and perform things differently from their groups.
3. culture can help reduce complexity and uncertainty
4. it provides a consistency in outlook and values
5. culture makes possible the processes of decision making
coordination and control
4. Impact of organizational culture on performance of personnel

Challenge
Organizational culture can lead to stress among many managers old cultural
forms which may not be compatible with the new ideologies may make the
employees less effective.
- Leaders can lower the employee’s perception of the organization culture
by doing the appositive of what the culture dictates hence reducing
credibility.
- Culture that leads to the design of the org structure where there’s a
centralized structure that reflects the belief that only the leader can
determine what is best is not good because the employees may feel they
are not involved in the responsibilities of the organization
- Cultures can deter adoption of equitable personnel policies and
procedures.
- Cultures can also prevent members of the organization from getting
opportunities for personnel development on career advancement
Measures
There is need to integrate personal goals and organizational goals;
- Allow for democracy functioning of the organization structured based on
the demands of the socio-technical system.
- Practice mutual trust, consideration and support among different levels
of the organization
- Discuss conflict with an attempt to avoid confrontation
- Adopt a managerial behavior and styles of leadership appropriate to a
particular work situation
- There should be acceptance of psychological contract between the
individual and the organization
- Recognition of peoples need and expectation at work and individual
differences and attributes is important.
- There should be equitable systems of rewards based on positive
recognition
- There should be concern for the quality of working life and job design
- There should be opportunities for personal development and career
advancement
- Employees should be encouraged to develop a serve of identity with and
loyalty to, the organization and a feeling of being valued member.

REVISION QUESTION
1. Explain five factors influencing organizational culture.
2. Highlight five effects of organizational
culture on the performance of personnel.
3. Discuss the factors that influence organizational culture
4. Explain the importance of organizational culture in management

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Downloaded by Peter Ngugi (petenjogu@yahoo.com)

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CHAPTER SIX
CHANGE IN COMMUNITY BASED ORGANIZATIONS

Specific Objective
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to;
a. Explain the meaning of change
b. Discuss the causes of change in an organization
c. Explain the cause of resistance to change in an organization
d. Discuss the impact of change in community based organizations

INTRODUCTION
1. MEANING OF CHANGE
Change is an alteration in the course of action or direction. Change is pervasive
influence
We are subject to continual change of one for or another. Change is an
inescapable part of both social and organizational life.

2. Causes of Change in an Organization

The causes of change in an organization are divided in two categories;
External factors
a. Market place- at the market place of profit and even service
organization competitors introduce new products, increase
advertising and reduce prices in each of these cases the manger’s
responses is expected unless he/she is content to lose what
his/her organization has acquired.
b. Technology changes- new methods of processing materials and or
information may bring changes in the organization. Technological
advancement is a permanent fixture in contemporary society, and
it will continue to demand attention
c. Environmental changes include: economic (economic
coordination’s, competition, inflation, threats, opportunities,
strategies, weaknesses, strengths, and rewards) legal,
demographic, socio –cultural(taboos, religion, language, ethnicity,
customs, values, beliefs, rituals and ceremonies ), physical (soil,
weather, typography and infrastructure) political(government /
party policies, local politics and stability, and international aspect
politics ideologies,wars,technologies and wars.
A change in these services seems to be occurring at an accelerating
rate.

Internal factors, [forces]

These forces constitute internal factors of changes which occurs
within the organization and can be traced to methods and
procedures, work standards; interpersonal relationship’ and
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distribution of responsibility, authority and accountability for scarce

resources. They can include;
i] People, employees, owners/shareholders, directors, suppliers,
clients, government and general public.
i] Structural factors-responsibilities, authority, accountability, rules
and regulations, system and procedures and policies.
C] Non-human resources-buldings, equipments, machinery, money,
land and other assets.
In most organizations, the manager is faced with accelerating
change in both the external environment supra-systems and the other
internal organizational sub-system which affects managerial
process. A manager is a central figure in organizational change. As
adecision-
maker; he\she is he ultimate change agent in the organization.

3. Causes of Resistant to Change in an Organization

1. Lack of trust – distrust can magnify the effect of other sources of
resistance. Even when there is no obvious threat, a change may be
resisted if people imagine they are hidden, ominous implications
that will only become obvious at a later time. Mutual resistance may
encourage a leader to be secretive about the change thereby further
increasing suspicions and resistance
2. Beliefs that change is unnecessary- one of the reasons for resisting
change is the absence of an obvious need for it. Change will be
resisted if the current way of doing things has been successful in the
past and there is no clear evidence to serious problems. If the top
management has been able to exaggerate how well the organization
is performing, then convincing people of need for change will be
very difficult.
3. Belief that the change is not feasible – Even when problems are
acknowledged a proposed change may be resisted because it seems
unlikely to succeed. Making a change that is radically different from
anything done previously will appear difficult if not impossible to
most people. Failure of earlier change programs creates cynicism
and makes people doubtful the next one will be any better.
4. Economic threats – regardless of how a change would benefit the
organization it is likely to be resisted by people who would suffer
personal loss of income, benefits of job security e.g. replacing man
power with machine technology.
5. Relative high cost- even when a change has obvious benefits. It
always entails some costs. Familiar routines must be changed,
causing inconvenience and requiring more effort. Concern about
costs in relation to benefits will be more difficult to allay when it is
not possible to estimate them with any accuracy.
6. Fear of personal failure – Change makes some expertise obsolete
and requires learning new ways of doing things. People who lack self
–confidence will be reluctant to trade procedures they have
mastered for new ones that may prove difficult to master. A
proposed change will be acceptance if it includes ample provision for
helping people learn new ways of doing things.
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7. Loss of status and power. – Major changes in organizations

invariably result in some shift in relative power and status for
individuals and sub-units. New strategies often require expertise not
possessed by some of the people currently enjoying high status as
problem solver. People responsible for activities that will be cut
back or eliminated will lose status and power, making the more
likely to resist change.
8. Threats to values and ideas- change that appears to be inconsistent
with strong values and ideas will be resisted; threat to a person’s
values arouses strong emotions that are resistance to change.
9. Resentment to interference- some people resist change because
they do not want to be controlled by others. Attempts to manipulate
them or force change will elicit resentment and hostility.

4. Techniques of managing change in an organization

The rule of managing change is to adopt a strategy which minimizes
resistance. A strategy which emphasizes shared authority has the
greatest likelihood of minimizing resistance to change, as it involves the
participation of superiors and subordinate in the entire process.

There are some basic pre-conditions that must exist for the workers to
participate meaningfully in a change process, they include:
 Employees must want to become involved.
 Employees must be willing and able to voice their ideas; they
must also have expertise in some aspect of the analysis
 The managers must be secure in their own positions. Insecure
managers would perceive any participation by employers as a
threat to their authority. They might view employee participation
as a sign of weakness or as undermining the status
 The manager must be open to employees’ suggestions.
When adopting a change strategy, one has to consider two phases;
Recognition of the need for change;-
Whether it takes a whisper of a shout the need for change must be recognized
by some means and the exact nature of the problem must be diagnosed. The
managers have to be provided with information of the magnitude of change
efforts, otherwise the process may be viewed as part of the control function,
especially the corrective-action requirement
Information is scrutinized from sources like financial statements, quality
control data, budget and standard cost information and personnel issues.
Diagnosis of the Problem
Before appropriate reaction can be taken, the symptoms of the problem must
be analyzed by mangers in order to discover the problem itself. Three
questions can be asked to determine the problem.
i) What is the problem, as distinct from the symptoms of the problem?
ii) What must be changed to resolve the problem?
iii) What outcomes are expected from the change and how will the
achievements is measured.
Other ways of diagnosing the problem would be through attitude surveys where
the problem is pinpointed as perceived by members of the organization
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There are however certain theories that describe a change process. These
theories describe a typical pattern of events that occur from the beginning of a
change to the end. One such theory is lewin’s theory of force-field model
(1951). He proposed that the change process can be divided into three phases

a) Unfreezing Phase: - In the unfreezing phase, people come to realize that

old ways of doing things are no longer adequate. This recognition may
occur as a result of an obvious crisis, or it may result from an effort to
describe threats and opportunities not yet evident to some in the
organization.
b) Changing phase: - Lewin says that in this phase, people look for new
ways of doing things and select a promising approach.
c) Refreezing Phase In the refreezing phase, the new approach is
implemented and it becomes established.
Lewins says that all the three phases are important and an attempt to move
directly to the changing phase will be a strong resistance. He also indicates
that lack of a systematic diagnosis and problem solving in the changing
phase will result in a week change plan.

According to lewin change may be achieved by two types of actions

i) Increasing the driving forces toward change e.g. increase
incentives or use positions of power to force change
ii) Reducing restraining forces that createresistance
to change e.g. reduce fear of failure to economic loss.
Lewin notes that unless restraining forces are reduced an increase in driving
forces will create an intense conflict over change, and continuing resistance
will make it more difficult to complete the refreezing phase.

Another theory of a change process is by jick, 1993: Woodward & Buchlz 1987.
Their theory describes how people in organizations react to changes imposed
upon them. The theory builds on observation or reactions f people to sudden
traumatizing events such as death of loved ones, break-up of a marriage or
natural disaster tat destroys one’s home.

They say that similar patterns of reactions occur in organizational change. They
view the reaction pattern to be based on four stages.
i) Denial stage – in this stage the reaction of people towards a change
plan is to deny that change will be necessary
ii) Anger stage:- In this stage people get angry and look for someone to
blame. At the same time, they stubbornly resist
giving up
accustomed
iii) ways of doing things
Mourning Stage; - In this stage, people stop denying that change is
inevitable acknowledged what has been lost and mourn it.
iv) Adaptation stage ; In this stage, people accept the need to change
They
and note that
go on thetheir
with duration
lives and severity of each stage can vary. They also say
that it is important for change leaders to understand these stages because they
must learn to be patient and helpful.

6.5 Impact of change in community Based Organizations

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Effects of impacts of change in CBOs depend on the magnitude and type of

change and the people’s capacity to tolerate change. A Toffler in his article.
The future shock, {bantam Books, 1971} stresses reactions due to limits to the
amount of change that the human organism can absorb. According to him,
effects of change are;
 Psychosomatic reactions:- this include actual physical impairment e.g.
ulcers, hypertension, migraine, allergy, hay fever etc.
 Emotional disorders e.g. neurotic behavior being uncoordinated
 Normal physiological responses: - this includes stress that stimulates
glands to make hormones that can induce a kind of drunkenness, fatigue,
over reaction, producing hypertension and peptic ulcer etc.
 Psychotic reactions (bizarre behavior patterns characterized by a
misinterpretation of reality)
 Alcoholism (a maladaptive response stress) and other addictions such as
drugs.
 Absenteeism
 Defensive behavior such as xenophobia (a hatred of strangers).

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. explain five external factors that influence
change in an organization
2. outline and explain six reasons why people fear change in
organization
3. as a newly employed community development worker in Eldoret
municipal council, explain the techniques you
will use in
managing change within the municipal
4. discuss the impact of change within
community based organization
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CHAPTER SEVEN
LEADERSHIP IN COMMUNITY BASED
ORGANIZATION
Specific objectives
a) explain the meaning of leadership
b) discuss the role of leadership in community based
organization
c) discuss ways of enhancing leadership in community
based organizations
d) discuss the impact of leadership in community based
organization

INTRODUCTION
1. Meaning of leadership
Leadership is a word that is very difficult to define and more numerous
definitions of leadership have little in common.
The definition differ in many aspects, including who exerts influence, the
intended purpose of the influence, the manner in which influence is exerted
and the outcome of the influence attempt. Different scholars have different
definitions of leadership.

1. Hemphill & Cons, 1957, p.7 define leadership as the behavior of an

individual directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal.
2. Dr. Katz & Kahn, 1978 p 528, define leadership as the influential
increment over and above mechanical compliance with the routine
directives of the organization.
3. Burns, 1978 p 18, defines leadership as a source of power exercised
when persons, mobilize institutional political, psychological and other
resources so as to arouse, engage and satisfy the motives of the
followers.
4. Rauch & Behling, 1984, p46, define leadership as the process of
influencing the activities of an organization group towards goal
achievement.

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5. Jacobs and Jacques 1990, p281, define leadership as a process of giving

purpose (meaningful /direction) to collective effort and causing willing
effort to be expended to achieve purpose
6. E. H Schen, 1992, p2, defines leadership as the ability to step outside
the culture to start evolutionary change processes that are more
adaptive.
7. Drath & Palus, 1994, p4 define leadership as the process of making sense
of what people are doing together so that people are doing together so
that people will understand and be committed.
8. Richards & Engle, 1986, p 266, view leadership as being about
articulating visions, embodying values and creating the environment
within things can be accomplished.
9. House et al 199, p154 define leadership as the art of influencing the
behavior of others through persuasion and guidance.

2. Roles of guidance in CBO

1. Leadership helps in arbitration (resolving disagreements or conflicts
among members of the organization
2. Leadership helps in suggestion of new ideas; this enhances sense of
participation and dignity on the part of the members
of the
organization.
3. leadership is a vehicle through which the organizations objectives are
supplied so as to enhance the organizations effectiveness
4. Leadership provides a means of inspiration for sub-ordinate workers who
are encouraged by the leader to know what their work is and to accept
organizational objectives.
5. Leadership is a form of security for the members of an organization in
facing problems
6. Leadership also provides a way through which an organization can sell its
image outside public (public relations)

TYPES OF LEADERS
Autocratic leaders
Those are leaders who owing to personality and determination and push
themselves into leadership positions. They include outstanding political and
military leaders who have been conquerors, dictators and despots e.g.
Napoleon Bonaparto of France. This kind of leadership dominates the group or
organization and does everything possible to prevent other leaders from
emerging to take his/her place.
Such leaders struggle to get themselves elected or appointed to
leadership positions.

Democratic leader
This is a leader who is part of the group and is chosen to help the group
to do its job. These kinds of leaders are found in democratic, political
societies, trade unions.
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Professional association and income religious groups are also among democratic
leaders. Such a leader is chosen by the group and they consider him/her one of
them.
The appointed leader
This is a kind of leader is usually found in organizations board of directors or
trustees, the appointed leader in turn appoints lower level workers, guides and
supervision them in work.
A passive leader
This is a kind of leader who occupies a leadership positions but fails to
stimulates or be stimulated by the group. His or her efforts at leadership
always fail and unless corrected the entire group can fall apart.

Coercive leader-
This is a leader who demands immediate compliance and expects things to be
done on his way not what other people expects from him/her.
Authoritative leader
This is a leader who mobilizes people toward a vision. His uses force in most
cases for things to happen. Most of his/ her words are just like law, nobody can
question.
Afflictive leader
This is a leader who creates emotional bonds and harmony among the people
he serves. He acts as a link between organization and the people he serves.

Pace –setting leaders

This is a leader who expert’s excellence and self direction and is being
motivated by when people comment good things about their leadership.

Coaching leader
This is a leader who develops people for the future and becomes encouraged
when he sees people succeeding. They are mainly motivators.

Functions of a leader
Task functions
- Achieving
objectives of
the work group
- Defining group
tasks
- Planning the
work
- Allocation of
Resource
- Organization of
duties and
activities
- Controlling
qualify and
checking
performance
- Reviewing
progress
Team functions
- Maintaining
morale and
building team
spirit
- The
cohesiveness of
the group as a
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- giving praise and status

- Reconciling conflicts between individual needs and the group needs.
- Training the individual
3. Ways of enhancing leadership in CBO
Effective leadership in CBOs requires the following ways for its improvement

1. a leader should be interested in his leadership role and enjoy it

2. A leader should have a strong drive to get things done
3. A leader should have higher intelligence that his subordinates
4. To improve his leadership in CBOs a leader should be technically
competent enough to do some instructing and to develop more efficient
methods of work.
5. Leadership can be enhanced by establishing available but high
performance standards and goals
6. leadership can be enhanced by a leader asserting his leadership
7. Leadership can be enhance by proper communication at all levels of the
organization
8. leader ship can be enhanced by having effective personnel policies and
practices including effective staffing or fair and equitable compensation
programmers
9. Leadership is also enhanced by effective training and development
10.Leadership can be enhanced by a leader who conveys confidence in
his/her subordinates.
- leadership is enhanced by all the members of an
organization
participating in problem solving based on constructive suggestions
- Leadership can be enhanced by intergrading the organizational needs
with the needs of the individuals
- A leader should use subordinates mistakes as an educational opportunity
rather than as an opportunity for punishment
- Leadership can also enhance their leadership by being approachable and
friendly.

4. Impact of leadership on social Development Activities

i) Leadership
learning provides opportunity for greatness in leading and in
to lead
ii) Leaders become role model for the members of the organization
iii) Leadership dev leads to self development through leadership person
gain self-confidence, esteem and power. A person overcomes
weaknesses and gain strengths
iv) Leadership creates a caring climate or a climate of trust on the
people towards the leader. This is because for people to disclose
their needs and feeling. To make themselves vulnerable to expose
their weaknesses, to risk failing, they must truly believe that they
are safe.
v) Leadership creates senses of control the members of an organization.
A leader is viewed as a person who has authority and controls other
member’s behavior.
vi) Through leadership, conflicts among members of the org is minimized
and can be resolved effectively because will strive to maintain unity among
members of the organization.
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vii) Leadership provides an avenue through which role conflicts can be

avoided because through leadership the process of delegation of
duties can be achieved.
viii) Through leadership new ideas emerge that can help in the
achievements of the organizational goals
ix) Effective leadership leads to improved co-operation between the
organizational and outside world.

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. Explain any four techniques through which
community based organization leaders and the
overall power of structure of a community could be
identified.
2. Highlight six repercussions of leadership on Social
Development.
3. Explain the main strategies of enhancing leadership.
4. explain four types of leadership styles
5. Effective leadership leads to positive growth of
community based organization. Discuss four
characteristics of a good leader

CHAPTER EIGHT

MOTIVATION IN COMMUNITY BASED

ORGANISATION
Motivation can be defined as the art of making somebody to something that
requires lot of effort. Motivation can also be defined as the direction and
persistence of action. It is the individual internal process that energizes,
directs and sustains behavior. It is the personal force that causes one to behave
in a particular way.
Motivation ca is considered to compromise individual efforts persistence and
the direction of the t effort. In simpler terms, motivation is the will to
perform.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

1. Abraham Maslow –Theory of Hierarchy of needs

Abraham Maslow hierarchy of needs theory is probably the best known theory
of motivation. According to him ,human being have five sets of needs
presented in a hierarchy .he argues that human needs develop from what he
called satisfying extrinsic value or more complicated ones which aims a
satisfying intrinsic value, which exist in hierarchy of needs which are
highlighted in their order of importance.
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Needs of hierarchy

1. Psychological needs
These include food shelter clothing and other needs which society and our
social networks should ensure that they are present. In community content
they are usually satisfied through adequate wages and salaries.

2. Safely needs
These include security stability and structured environment. He argues that
individuals in the community at this stage are expected to pursue a job
security, a comfortable working environment, freedom to organize to ensure of
these benefits. Community members need protection from physical and
emotional harm.

3. Relationship needs
Here he argues that the individual tend to lean towards the satisfaction of
intrinsic value .relationship needs include socialization, affection, love,
companionship and friendship.

4. Esteem needs
These include feeling of adequacy competence independence, confidence
association and recognition which include attention from others.

5. Self actualization
He argues that it is most difficult to define and explain self actualization from
the individual’s point of view. However he says that it is the development
and realization of ones full potential that is growth achieving ones potential
and self fulfillment, the drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Maslow hierarchy of needs

Self actualization

Esteem needs

Social needs

Safely and security

Psychological needs
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He says that the organization requirement may include opportunity for

creativity and growth. The community workers should ensure there is a
conducive environment for individuals who have reached their peak to be
creative.

Criticism of Maslow’ theory

 People do not only satisfy their needs, especially higher-level one just
through the work situation but also through other areas of their life as
well.

 There is doubt about the time which elapses between the satisfaction of
a lower level need and the emergence of a higher level need.

 Even if people are in the same level of the hierarchy the motivation wil
not be the same because there are many ways in which people may seek
satisfaction of their various needs.

 Maslow viewed satisfaction as the main motivation outcome of behavior

but just satisfaction does not necessarily leads to improve work
performance.

Two factors theory of Motivation

Hertzberg Motivation –Hygiene Theory

Hertzberg studies (1959) concentrated on satisfaction at work. In the initial
research some zoo engineers and accountants were asked to recall when they
had experienced satisfactory and un satisfaction feelings about their jobs. They
concluded that certain factors tend to leak up job satisfaction, whoever others
led frequency to satisfaction.
The factor giving rise to satisfaction were called motivation .those giving rise
to dissatisfaction were called hygiene factors, this situation later (1968)
extended to include various groups in manual and clerical group where the
results were claimed to be similar.

Motivation
The most important motivator or satisfaction to emerge was the
following:
 Achievement
 Recognition
 Responsibility
 Advancement

Hygiene factors
The most important hygiene factor or dissatisfaction was as follows:-
 Company policy and administration
 Supervision. The technical aspect.
 Salary

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 Interpersonal relationship
 Working condition.

Criticism of Hertzberg’s theory

Some criticism about hertz berg theory that suggest about the clarity of the
state of the theory include

The theory has only limited application to manual workers .it is claim that the
theory applies least to people with largely unskilled jobs and work is
uninteresting.

The theory is methologically bound. It is claimed that the critical incide

method and description of event giving raise to good or bad feeling influence
the results.

3. Clayton Alderfer’s existence relatedness and growth theory

To address some of the limitation of Maslow hierarchy as the theory of
motivation, Clayton proposed the ERG theory, which like Maslow theory
describes needs as a hierarchy. The letters ERG stands for 3 levels of needs:
existence, relation and growth. The ERG theory is based on work of Maslow, so
it has much in common with it but also differs in some important aspect.

Similarities to Maslow hierarchy

Studies have shown that the middle level of Maslow hierarchy has some
overlap: Alderfer shows this issue by reducing the number of levels to three.
The ERG needs can be mapped to those of Maslow theory as follow:
a. Existence: physiological and safety needs.
b. Relatedness : social and external esteem needs
c. Growth: self actualization and internal esteem needs.

Difference from Maslow hierarchy

In addition to the reduction in the number of levels ERG theory differs from
Maslow in the following three ways;

 Unlike Maslow hierarchy, the ERG theory allows for different levels of
needs to be pursued simultaneously.

 The ERG theory allows the order of the needs be different for different
people.

 The ERG theory acknowledge that if a higher level of needs remain

unfulfilled , the person may regress to lower level needs that appear
easier to satisfy. This is known as the frustration –regression principle.

4 Expectation Theory by Vroom

According to Vroom, this theory aims are specifically work motivation .his
theory is based on three variables, valance, instrumentality and expectancy.
He found his on the ideas that people prefer certain outcome over others.
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They anticipate feeling of satisfaction should be preferred outcome be

achieved

Valence
This is feeling about specific outcome. It is the attractiveness of over
preference for a particular outcome to the individual. He distinguishes valence
from value by saying that the person may desire an objective but then gain
little satisfaction from obtaining it.

Instrumentality
He says that instrumentality is the association between the first level outcome
and the second level outcome measured on a range between +1.0 and -1.0.
He observed that the valence of an out come derives from terminate.
C) Expectancy
When a person chooses between alternatives behaviours which have uncertain
outcome, the choices is affected not only by the preference for a popular
outcome but also by the probability that such an outcome will be achieved. It
is the relationship between a chosen course of action and its predicted
outcome. Expectancy relates efforts expanded to achievements of first
outcomes.

Importance of motivation
1. Satisfaction of needs
Needs vary and they involve manager basic needs, social needs and self esteem
needs.

a. Manager needs
This involves building a system of motivation based on satisfying common
needs.

b. Basic needs
These include food, clothing and shelter which are satisfied through pay and
secure terms.
c. Social needs
These refer to self fulfillment or self actualization. Self esteem motivation
system recognized the ego needs by encouraging conformity to acceptable
standard of ethics.

2. Saturation of basic needs

Since satisfaction of higher needs will elicit more effort once basic needs are
largely fulfilled, greater reward mainly acceptable to the satisfaction of basic
needs.

3. Release of work capacity

People have immense reservoirs of physical and mental capabilities untapped
by employers. When the good motivation system is applied, these resources
will be realized.

4. Enhancing of the film image

People prefer to work for an organization because of its glamour.
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Designing motivation package

A sound motivation package must be;

i. Productive-it induces subordinate to work efficiency

ii. Competitive-So that marginal cost= marginal revenue (MC=MR)

iii. Comprehensive-to reflect those basic and higher needs

iv. Flexible-in time and respect of individuals

When designing a motivation package there are here factors that have to be
looked at
 Financial opportunities
 Growth in statute and responsibity
 Discipline and morale

Maintaining motivation
To maintain motivation levels in organization the supervisor or manager have
to do the following;
Recognizing achievement
People usually like to feel important regardless of the level of their work.

All the growth

When individual is motivated and does his work well, more emerging
responsibilities should be given to him or her for his personal growth and
organizations.

Rewarding improvement in performance no matter how small

This is particularly important when the employee is at first level of
maturity.

Criticizing the work and not the workers

When there is need to criticize an aspect of a person work. It is the work that
should be criticized and not the staff members.
Challenges of motivation on CBO
 Frustration
 Conflicts
 Difficult in challenging people
 The degree of individuals
 Strength of motivation
 The level and potency of the need
 Building trust among the employees
 Job design is also a challenge on motivation
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CHAPTER NINE

MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNITY
BASED ORGANISATION
Specific objectives
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to;
a) Explain meaning of management
b) Discuss theories of management
c) Explain the function of management

Definition
Management is the process of getting things done through others such as
employees in the organization. It requires people to perform the function of
staffing, besides utilizing resources like money, equipment. Community based
organization is a system whose survival depends on the ability to adapt to the
changes in its environment. These strategies can be either proactive or
reactive.

THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT

1. Scientific management theory

This was propounded by F.W Taylor (1956 – 1917). He was an American
engineer. He founded a movement known as ‘’ scientific movement’’.

According to Taylor and the scientific movement’’ the principal object of

management should be able to secure the maximum prosperity means his
development to enable him/her perform efficiency in his work besides getting
higher wages in return.

Taylor saw a state of mutual independence between management and worker

and hence the necessity to work together to achieve common goal. He gives
causes of antagonism and efficiency at the work place, to include;
 The false notion of employees
 Systematic soldering by employees
 Inefficient rule of thumb effort wasting method of work

He gave out the solution to these problems as the application of scientific

management because of two reasons.
 It would offer a systematic study of work to discover the most
efficient method of performing the job.

 It would offer a systematic study of management with the objective of

achieving the most efficient method of controlling the workers.
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Taylor theory is criticized for being an ‘’ inhuman system’’ reducing workers to

the level of efficiency functioning machine.

Bureaucratic theory
This theory was propounded by Max Weber 1864 – 1920. He was a German
sociologist but a lawyer by qualification. His concern was in bureaucratic
structure in his theory of authority structures.
In his explanation for people obedience to order he distinguishes power
from
authority. According to Weber , those under authority see it as a role to obey
see it as he function of these in authority to make them obey.
Weber identifies three types of organization authority.

The charismatic authority

This kind of authority is held by a person with expectation powers or qualities
that make him / her see as almost super human or super natural.

The traditional authority

This kind of authority is based on precedence and has been and will be.

The rational Legal authority

This type of authority has made Weber be known as the father of
bureaucracy .this is where organization or legal system contributed to the
achievement of the corporate maximum performance.
Features of bureaucracy
The main features of a bureaucracy, according to Weber are as follow;
 A continuous organization bound by rules
 Specified spheres of competence
 Hierarchical arrangements of offices
 Appointment of officials are made on technical competence
 Separation of officials from the ownership of the organization
 Rules, decision and action are formulated and recorded in
writing.

Human relation theory

The proponent of this theory is Elton mayo. He was an Australian who
spends most of his life at Harvard University. He pounded this theory within
five year investigation of the Hawthorne works of the western electric
company in Chicago (1927- 1932).

He was then referred to as the father of industrial sociology. His research at

the Hawthorne electric company used poor and proper lighting.
He also observes groups in the organization and found out that the voluntary
groups output was more. He also experimented with breaks (rest pause) and
observes that where there breaks the output was increased and complaints
were absent.

He found out that the working was unhappy and they united against the
management. He also observed that the unhappy group produced a little
output and there was no recognition to rules and procedures governing their
states of work.
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Significance of the Hawthorne experiments.

The discovery of the existence of informal groups within the formal

organization

The effects of group relationship on motivation and behavior of individuals

in work place

It is the management and employee communication is due to inadequate

communication system

There is need of personal management in firms

Management function
They include the following

Planning
This is the strategy phase and is usually adopted in the light of the forecast.

Steps in planning
 Self auditing
 Surveying the environment
 Focusing the future situation
 Stating action and resources requirement
 Evaluating proposed actions
 Communicating
Organizing
This comprises the implementation phase of the execution of the
management process.

It organization entails;
i. Developing organization charts to design the organization
structure
ii. Defining relationship in an organization at different level
iii. Job description
Steps in organizing
 Identifying and define work to be performed
 Break work done into duties
 Group duties into positions
 Define positions requirement
 Group position into manageable units
 Assign work to be performed and the extent of authority
 Revise and adjust the organization as appropriate
 Communicate throughout the organization process

(c) Controlling
This is the result phase whereby the manager keeps abreast with progress
performance. Controlling an be accomplished by
 Establishing system of report through which feedback performance
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 Measuring result by comparing them with standard

 Revising and adjusting control result and challenging conditions
(d) Strategic planning
This is the use of the SWOT theory of planning .It is kind of planning which sets
goals to meet them as planned. Strategy is defined as the formulation of the
basic organization, mission, purpose and objective.
Types of strategies
 Retrenching strategy
 Stability strategy
 Growth strategy
 Combination strategy
Levels of strategy
 Corporate strategy
 Business level strategy
 Functional level
 Marching opportunities with capabilities

Advantages of strategic planning

(e) Strategic planning enables manager to become better decision maker
(f)Business which practice strategic planning have satisfied employee than
those that do not.
(g) It improves communicating in an organization
(h)It is worth while tool for better goal achievement which leads to better
profit gain margin
(i)It helps to anticipate future problem and opportunities because of the
changes in business organization.

CHAPTER TEN

ORGANIZATION FUNCTION
Meaning of organizing
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This is the implementation phase or the execution of the management process.

It is the arrangement of resource in the productive manner for execution action
Basis of organizing community activities
 Designing structure by developing and organizing to create major blocks
department
 Defining relationship between different position to show who report to
whom and who control who.
 Position description (job description)
 Establishing ( the human rumens)

Factors influencing the basis of organization communities

These factors also form part of the principle of organization.

Unity of command
This states that each staff should report to one boss.

Control
The organization should be able to maintain a work force.

Delegation of responsibilities
This involves assigning new responsibilities to subordinate and additional
authority to carry out them.

Lines communication
There should be clear lines of communication at all levels of the
organization.

Line manager and staff

Line manager or people appointed into sub management position by the
manager.

Flexibility
The manager should be aware of the changes in condition and work loads in the
organization and they should be able to make changes.

Importance of organizing development activities in society

 Helps in designing activities
 Helps in establishing a clear line of authority
 Help to obtain expertise in a work force though establishing ojb
specification.
 Provides unity of direction
 Has a dynamic nature which enables the manager to bring about change
and absorb and accommodate change as need arise.
 Organizing create harmony and unity among members of the
organization.

Challenges of organizing development activities

a. External limitation-this includes legal, ethical, political, moral
and economic consideration that makes up our society.
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b. Biological challenges-Human being does not have capacity to do

certain things.
c. Internal challenges.

Partnership in CBO’s
Partnership is relationship that exists between two or more persons jointly
carrying out a business with the objectives of making profit.

In a partnership each partner contributes money, property and labour and in

turn the partner shares in the profit and losses of the business.
Types of partnership
d. General partnership-Partner has unlimited liability for the firm
debt.
e. Limited partnership-The partner has limited liability in the
business.
f. Active partnership-The partner share in every way the capital
contribution.
g. Silent partnership-This kind of a limited partnership in which
the
partner do not participate of the organization.
e. Secret partnership-this involves a partner who participates in the
management of the organization but not disclosed.
f. Quasi partnership-this involves a situation in which a person is
not
one of the owner of the firm.
g. Minor partnership-involves a person serving as a partner while in the
under the statutory majority age of eighteen years.

Strategies of forming partnership

Focusing partnership goals

h. Identify the objective for service partnership. the objective can be

social , economic , financial , physical political or institutional .

i. Establish approach to partnership development that contribute to the

set objectives

j. Link partnership with other related activities

Develop partnership in relation broader organization obligation and

functions

a) Developing a partnership frame work

b) Explore the attribute and roles of actors in the partnership.

c) Identifying the potential role and contribution of external actors

d) Develop appreciation of the different characteristics that partner bring

to the partnership.

e) Design mechanism for partnering promoting effective interaction.

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f) Considering the scope and content of the partnership framework in

terms of the objectives.

g) Address physical objective service coverage service pitons and service

quality.

h) Address social and political objectives

i) Address financial and economic objectives.

j) Consider the factors affecting the ways the partnership should be

considered.

k) Agree and work towards the key principals of partnership.

Enhancing capacity to implement partnership

 Develop understanding of the operation context of h te
organization.
 Develop understanding of the regulatory environment.
 Develop appropriate skills for developing implementation and
sustaining the objectives.
 Develop an organizational development strategy to respond
to
partnership strategy
 Address management capacities
 Address procedural constraints
 Address financial capacities to ensure strong financial base and
reliable partnership.
Impacts of partnership on community activities

Importance
 Additional source of capital
 Broader management base
 Base of expansion
 Sharing losses and liabilities

Challenges
 Unlimited liability
 Difficulty in decision making
 Lack of continuity
 Sharing of profit frozen investment.

Measures
 Establish a thorough participation and consulting exercise before
deciding to partner.
 Develop appreciation of different characteristics that each
partner
brings to the partnership.
 Establish proper communication channels at all levels in the
organization
 Promote effective interaction
 Provide training programmes to all partners
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 Work towards key principle of partnership

 Develop a partnership frame work
 Ensure that there is enough capacity to achieve the objectives.
CAPACITY BUILDING IN COMMUNITY
BASED ORGANIZATION

 Specific objectives
 By the end of this unit the trainee should
be able to;
 Define capacity building
 Explain importance of capacity building
 Discuss the types pf capacity building
 Discuss the impact of capacity building on
community based organization
INTRODUCTION
Meaning of capacity building

 This involves developing an individual self confidence and competence

to undertake the task given.
 Competence and confidence increase when people gain experience in
organizational management and acquire new knowledge and skills
including
 capacity to generate knowledge.

 Importance of capacity building in CBO

  Develops decision making skills in individual and executing such
decisions
 e.g. design and planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation
 Develops new knowledge and skills in problem solving and in
understanding organization management as well as technical taste related
to areas of work. This will provide the individual capacity to raise
financial resources, capacity to undertake new development activities etc.
 Develops a person confidence and self concept. These are psychological
constructs that can be simply measured through behavioral manifestation
including new initiative undertaken and self relating abilities.
 Capacity building enhances new initiative.
 Develops a sense of control of efficacy (I can change any situation) in
individual.
Types of capacity building
Motivation

 This is creating morale to do something. Getting somebody do something.

People are motivated through
 getting morale support
 Giving them access to what they want
 Creating transparency and accountability
 Through material support
 involving them indecision making
 b) Mobilization
 This involves bringing people together to do something. Mobilizing also
involves the assembling of resources which would help in doing something.
Things that are mobilized include
 Land
 Money
 People
 Skills
 Time

 c) Planning
 Planning process in capacity building, it may be defined as the process of
developing knowledge, skills and attitude of individuals and groups engaged
in
 reform and empowering them in such areas as policy formulation, design,
evaluation, piloting and innovation and implementation.
 This module highlight the needs for carefully engaged capacity building
on a continuous basis in order to sustain the change process .in this regard
it seek
 to;
 Utilize capacity building programme to develop conceptual understanding
and appreciation and the nature, philosophy and principles of change.
 Develop the attitude towards change as dynamic process.
 Shift the thinking from short training to the provision of variety of
continuity activities for lifelong learning
 Present variety of approaches and strategies for sustainable/
 continuous capacity building activities and possibly of combining those.
 Define change from the perspective and understanding of key participants
in the four processes.
 Develop approaches to capacity building including individuals, strategies
for continuous strengthening of capacity.
 In the planning for a programme of capacity building, it is important to
reflect on the following issues:

 Who?
 How?
 Why?
 When?
 What?
Impact of capacity building on CBO

 Capacity building involves activities which

strengthen the knowledge , abilities , skills
and behavior of individuals and improve
institutional structures and processes such
that the organization can efficiency meet its
mission and goals in sustainable way. The
impact of capacity building on community
development includes the following;
 Human resource development
 Capacity building equips individuals with
understanding, skills and access to
information, knowledge and training that
enables them to perform effectively.
Organization development

 The elaboration of management structures

process and procedures, not only within
organization but also but also the
management of relationship between the
different organization and sectors.

 Institutional and legal frame work

development
 Making legal and regulatory changes to
enable organization such as community
based organization to enhance their
capacity.
REVISION QUESTIONS

 Define capacity building

 Explain five importance of capacity
building in community based organization
 Discuss three types pf capacity building
 Discuss the impact of capacity building on
community based organization
 as a community based organization
worker, describe how planning process is
relevant in capacity building
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CONFLICT IN COMMUNITY BASED

ORGANIZATION

 Specific Objectives
 By the end of this topic, the trainee should
be able to;
 explain the nature of conflict in community
based organization
 discuss the desirable and undesirable
conflict in community based organization
 source of conflict in community based
organization
 discuss ways of managing conflict in
community based organization
INTRODUCTION

 Conflict refers to a situation or state of

things not being right or fine. It indicates a
stressful, unhappy, distressing, depressing,
annoying, frustrating state of affairs or
even war with one self or others. Conflicts
is an inherent feature of organization

 Conflict is not necessarily a bad thing,

properly managed conflict can have
potentially positive out come. It can be an
energizing and revitalizing force in groups
and in organizations
Nature of conflict

 Conflict occurs when an individual or

group experience a decision problem.
Conflict is reviewed in 3 different types of
responses.
1.Human Conflict (primarily in a grisly or
negative sense e.g. war, murder, rape)
2.Less violent terms (e.g. tension, bargaining,
games competition. etc)
3.Positive in attitude e.g. an existing contest
or adventure to the unknown.
Two conditions are usually present in all
conflict situations

 That people in dispute are associated in such away

that one person can some what influence the other
 That the people associated in this way have similar

needs which cannot be completely met. This is a case

where people want the same thing, but there just
isn’t enough.
Conflict can also be viewed as:
 Competitive conflict - these are conflicts that follow

definite rules and are not typically associated with

angry feelings. There is ordinarily a victory for one
side only at the cost of defeat of the other.
 Disruptive conflict – this kind of conflict involves

irrational behavior and the use of violent acts.

Parties here do not follow a mutually acceptable set
of rules and are not primarily concerned with ruining.
Instead, their attention is to harm, defend, reduce or
drive away the opponent. The atmosphere here is
that of stress, anger and fear.
Conflict desirable and
undesirable

 Desirability of conflict
 Conflicts have desirable functions too.
Conflict can be seen as a constructive
force and in certain circumstances it can be
welcome or even encouraged. It
 can be an agent for evolution and for
internal and external change. Desirable
conflict can lead to the following positive
outcome:
Undesirability of conflict

 Production of better ideas.

 Stimulation of interest and creativity
 Prevention of stagnation
 Providing a medium through which
problems can be aired and solutions
arrived at.
 A chance for personal and social change
 Resistance of existing groups norms or
helping emergence of new ones
 Clarification of individual views
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Conflicts are usually hard to keep in control once they have begun. Once a
conflict escalates to a point which it is no longer under control, it almost yields
to negative results can include:
i) people feeling demeaned and defeated
ii) the distance between people increased
iii) A climate of mistrust and suspicion develops
iv) Individual and groups concentrate on
their own narrow interests
v) Resistance developed rather team work
vi) An increase in employee turnover

3. Sources of conflict
1. Difference in perception – perception is how we review things. We all
view things differently. This implies that different people will give
different meaning to the same stimuli and this can lead to conflict.
2. Limited resource: - Such resources include money, material, manpower
etc. the desire to win these resources creates conflicts (a win or loose
situation)
3. Role- based conflicts different groups may occupy different roles within
an organization that are inherently antagonistic to each other. In
organizations many jobs create conflicts by design e.g. finance and
production manager.
4. Introduction to change – this is caused by resistance to new changes
because of various reasons such as economic loss of status or loss of
power etc.
a. Drive for power – this is the urge to get power. An example can be
rivalry between the training manager and production manager
which causes conflict.
5. Poorly defined responsibilities – this could arise where two
organizational units are completely over new responsibilities. Poor job
description can also easily create such conflicts.
6. Organizational climate – an organization character or personality could
create conflict with its culture and philosophy.
7. Aggressive nature of man- biologically man is partly an aggressive and
hostile animal. These aggressive characteristics show while he seeks an
expression of aggressive impulse.
8. Clashes of values of interest- those clashes might be union –management
generation gap (old verse young), interdepartmental (incompatible goals
and means) and interdisciplinary.

4.Consequences of conflict
Functional consequences
i) bad elements in a situation may be removed and unity established
ii) new leadership may emerge because the former is unsuitable
iii) Old goals may become modified or replaced with new ones.
iv) Conflict may become institutionalized that is outlets
may be established so that people can often breathe out hot air.
v) Motivation and energy available to complete the task may be
increased and act as an energizer
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vi) Conflict may lead to innovation of interest’s ideas and divergent

thinking.
vii) member may increase understanding of his/her own position in the
Each
group for better membership role play.
Conflict
viii) may satisfy aggressive urges inherent in people.

Dysfunctional consequences
i) Mental health of some combatants maybe adversely affected.
ii) Conflict may result to miss allocation of organizational resources
iii) Goals may be distorted with little or no achievements realized.

12.5 Managing Conflict in Community Based Organization

This is the way through which management can attempt to avoid the harmful
effect of conflict. Managing conflict is a major role of community based
organization lender. It includes the following resources;

a) Isolation
This involves suppression and avoidance of conflicts and where there is no
collaboration between parties. It represents a withdrawal from the reality of
the situation. It is normally easier to refrain than to retrain from an argument.

b) Peace co existence
This position represents a high degree of collaboration. Usually at the expense
of self group, combined with avoidance and suppression of conflicts.

c) Collaboration
Here is limited only on the goals and problems on which the parties see eye to
eye.

d) Locating a common enemy

By knowing the source of conflict in the community based organization, it is
easier to solve the problem resolving around the community based
organization.

e) Individualism, the rival group

When you point the source of conflict within the CBO such individual will be
ashamed of their actions and others will fear being labeled rivals.

f) Restructuring the CBO

This means removing the rivals from the leadership position. This is usually the
final option in managing conflict in CBO.
In this situation there is emphasis on the event to which the superior is
persevered as acceptant and encouraging subordinate disagreement. When the
norms of organization are avoided destroyed the firm, the low power between
the conflict parties is usually equal and used to defeat the one. Ones a war
cycle get under way it is usually difficult to intervene.

REVISION QUESTION
1. explain any five advantages of conflict in community based organization

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2. explain the difference between desirable and undesirable form of

conflict
3. explain six consequences of conflict in community based organization
4. as a newly employed community based organization officer in Kitui
county, discuss the measures in which you can use to manage conflict in
the newly formed community based organization

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

POWER AND POLITICS IN COMMUNITY

BASED ORGANIZATION
Specific Objectives
a) describe the sources of power in an organizational set-up
b) explain the characteristic of power
c) describe the ways in leaders of Community Based Organization can
effectively acquire and effectively use power

INTRODUCTION
Power and politics in community based organization
Power is essential element for exercising leadership. In organization such as
cbo, managers can use power to influence their subordinate and to contain the
resource they need to accomplish tasks in order to achieve organizational
objectives. Power in this case means some control over their work
environment, while both power and politics are important elements in most
undertakings, they are also considered to be dangerous because they are
associated with the undesirable human action. Such as corruptions,
domination, exploration, political scandals and suppression.
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Nature of power and politics

Power – this is the capacity of one party to influence another party at a given
point in time. In this political influence will depend upon the type of power
that the political leader can exercise over the followers. Power can be used in
so many different ways due to its flexibility.
 In terms may refer to agents influence over a single target person or
over multiple target people or over multiple target people.
 Sometimes the term power refers to potent ion influence over things or
events as well as attitude and behavior.
 Sometimes the power is defined in relative rather than absolute term
meaning that the extent which the target has more influence over
the target than the target has over to the agent.

Characteristics of power

 Flexible- Can is used in different ways.

 Dynamic-It changes as the condition change.
 Source of power is based the perception of the subordinate on h te
influence of the leader.
 Power is power oriented. It has specific target.
 Has time duration. There is limited time to a person exerting hsi
influence over others.
 Has objectives, the person who exercises power usually has
influence
objective (what he /he wants to achieve by exercising that
power.

Source of power
Within an organization leadership influence will depend upon the type of power
that the leader can exercise over the follower. Five main source of power upon
which the influence of leader is based have been identified. They are also seen
as types of power.
Position power
Derived from the office that individual occupies. The formal institution granted
to an office does not constitute actual power but the person can derive power
from office. This is because people are the distribution of the organizational
rewards and punishment.
Reward power.
This is based on the perception of subordinate that the leader control
important resource and reward desired by the subordinate. The reward power
depends normally on the manger actual person perception that the agents have
the capacity and willingness to follow through on premise.
Coercive power (scrooge power)
Is based on fear and the subordinate perception that the leader has the ability
to punish or to bring about undesirable outcome for those who do not comply
with directives for example withholding pay rise, promotion or privilege,
allocation of undesirable duties or responsibilities withdrawal of support or
friendship or dismissal.
Expert power
People with expert knowledge and information that either people head can
exert substantial power in cbo. Manager can generally exercise expert power
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

because the have more job experience and knowledge than other subordinate
who have expert knowledge and skills can exert power over their superiors
becoming dependent.

Acquisition and effective use of power

There are two theories that explain how power is acquired and lost.

Social change theory

By Jacob (1990), they assert that member expectation about what leader’s role
a personal should have in the group influence by the person loyalty and
democratic competence.
They say the amount of power accorded to a person relates to his or her
contribution in the organization compared with other contribution. The
contribution may involve control over scarce resource, access to vital
information or skill in dealing with tactical problems.

When leaders proposals leads to failure then negative results will be great
especially if the failure is due to poor judgment or incompetence. They also
say that when a leader acts for his personal gain rather than for the groups,
then the failure leads to greater blame. They say that the extent of leadership
loss status after the failure depends on how serious the failure is.
Social exchange emphasis export power and authority and other forms of power
do not receive much attention.

Strategic contingencies theory

This theory explains how some organization sub unit’s gains or lose power to
influence important decision such as selection of chief executives,
determination of the organization competitive strategy and the allocation of
resources among sub units and activities. The theory explain that the power of
a sub unit depends on three factors
 Expertise in coping with important problems
 Centrality of the sub unit within the work force
 The extent to which the sub unit expertise is unique rather than
substitutable

The theories explain that all the organization must cope with critical
contingencies especially technological problems and problems of adapting to
different environmental changes.

They explain the successful solution to those problems will be source of

expert’s power for sub unit as well as for individuals in the organization. They
say that the opportunities to show experts and gain power from it are
important to sub units than solving the critical problems.

REVISION QUESTION

1. describe the sources of power in an organizational set-up

2. explain five the characteristic of power
3. describe the ways in leaders of Community Based Organization can
effectively acquire and effectively use power
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CHAPTER FOURTEEN

EMERGING TRENDS IN COMMUNITY

BASED ORGANIZATION
Specific Objective
By the end of this topic, the trainee should be able to;
a) discuss the emergency trends in community based organizations in
developed country
b) Explain any emerging trends in community based organization in
developed countries.

INTRODUCTION
Emerging trends in community based organization are the changes that are
taking place in the world of Community based. This is mainly because of the
changes in life styles and others issues relating to social life. Technology has
also contributed to these changes. In this topic, we are going to discuss in the
following areas;

 Environmental trends
 Trends of people
 Trends in technology
 Trends in conflict
 Trends in organization

a) Environmental trends
The environmental comprise education, political and cultural force with the
potential of influencing organization and members.
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

Nevertheless the manager has to plan ahead and accomplish productivity as

conditions change over time. Some of the environment behaviour that will
continue to affect management of CBOs includes;
 Shortage of money and natural resource will continue and even get
worse.
 Foreign completion will intensify particularly in mature industries
where technology has developed.
 The government regulation and legal measures will continue
regulating CBOs.
 Computers will continue to incase sophistication of
industries and
office system.

b) Trends of people
There will be trenches of relationship in organization between employees and
their bosses among changes that will occur in this relationship include;

a) Pressure for self determination

Pressure for increase employee participation inform of job enrichment
autonomous work group flexible working condition.

b) Pressure for employee’s rights

The employee will continue to press for their rights to be recognized such as
fright to privacy.

c) Pressure for insecurity

Employees will press for security in both physical and economic livelihood.

d) Pressure for equity earning

The employees will continue to demand for compensation for comparable
quality of work they do.

e) Pressure to achieve and maintain high quality of life

Employees will live and work in condition that protect, foster and respect the
dignity of their human nature.

c) Trends in technology
High technology especially the introduction of computers is the way of
development that different organization must adopt to effectively achieve
their goals.
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Technology involves:

 The decline of traditional incentives with increase popularity of

financing reward careers.

 Increase competition for promotion, burns more flexibility in work

position because of increase competition opportunities will
decline and therefore great flexibility will be needed to
accommodate people in these positions.

 More ability needs centralized decision but more pressure to

decentralize. The use of computers and electronic technologies
give managers easy access to information and ability to
process the information quickly and efficiency.

 Continue progress of women at work but lingering inequality in

pay and other benefits.

 Mere people will be working but unemployment will still be

higher. There will be increase employment opportunities in
technical areas but unemployment will be increase use of these
technologies.

d) Trends in conflict
Conflicts are inevitable in all organization; this is because making has
innumerable and changing needs. If one power system is destroyed, another
emerges if authority is eradicated, men will compete for precedence.

Conflict will still emerge in such areas such as

 Working conditions
 Mode of payment
 Changes in organization
 Number of hours work etc.

e) Trends in organization
Organization change is the planned attempt by management to improve the
overall performance of individuals, groups and organization by altering
structure, behavior and technology.
Management of change is a systematic process divided into sub process or
steps
logically linked in sequence. Future managers will have to face the challenges
of establishing better ways of managing change in organization.

The three types of changes that will have to look include:-

 Structural change
 Behavioral change
 Technological change

Changes in these three areas can be lead to improvement for the organization
as a whole. Individual and group one element will affect changes in other
 lOMoARcPSD|9581471

changes in other elements and this is why future managers will have to be very
careful in establishing their strategies for managing change.

They will have to remember that the change technique chosen will be affected
by the leadership climate, the formal organization structure and the
organizational culture.
REVISION QUESTIONS

 Developing countries are said to be still

struggling in terms of development,
discuss the emergency trends in
community based organizations in
developing country
 As a community based organizer, explain
any emerging trends in community based
organization in developed countries.