ALLOWABLE

STRESS
DESIGN
ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
Allowable Stress Design (ASD) is also referred to as the service load design or working stress design
(WSD). The basic conception (or design philosophy) of this method is that the maximum stress in a
structural member is always smaller than a certain allowable stress in bridge working or service
conditions. The allowable stress of a material determined according to its nominal strength over the
safety factor. Therefore, the design equation of the ASD method can be expressed as: where σ i is a
working stress due to the design load, which is determined by an elastic structural analysis under the
design loading conditions. Σ all is the allowable stress of the constructional material. The σ n is the
nominal stress of the material, and FS denotes the safety factor specified in the design specification.
Selection of allowable stress depends on several factors, such as the design code, construction
materials, stress conditions, etc.
 FACTOR OF SAFETY
In engineering, a factor of safety (FoS), also known as (and used interchangeably with) safety factor (SF),
expresses how much stronger a system is than it needs to be for an intended load. Safety factors are often
calculated using detailed analysis because comprehensive testing is impractical on many projects, such as bridges
and buildings, but the structure's ability to carry a load must be determined to a reasonable accuracy.

There are two definitions for the factor of safety (FoS):

* The ratio of a structure's absolute strength (structural capability) to actual applied load; this is a measure of the
reliability of a particular design. This is a calculated value, and is sometimes referred to, for the sake of clarity, as
a realized factor of safety.

* A constant required value, imposed by law, standard, specification, contract or custom, to which a structure
must conform or exceed. This can be referred to as a design factor, design factor of safety or required factor of
safety.
FACTOR OF SAFETY FORMULA:
 SIMPLE CONNECTION DESIGN
Simple connections are nominally pinned connections that are assumed to transmit end shear only and to have
negligible resistance to rotation. Therefore do not transfer significant moments at the ultimate limit state. This
definition underlies the design of multi-storey braced frames in the UK designed as 'simple construction', in which
the beams are designed as simply-supported and the columns are designed for axial load and the small moments
induced by the end reactions from the beams. Stability is provided to the frame by bracing or by the concrete core.

Two principle forms of simple connection (as shown on the right) are used in the UK, these being:

* Single Lap Joint Connection

* Double Lap Joint Connection

SINGLE LAP JOINT CONNECTION
Single-lap joints are a widely-used and relatively strong and simple way joining two materials via an
overlapping bond. With the growing use of composite materials in modern design practices, the need
to join incre asingly dissimilar materials has arisen.
DOUBLE LAP JOINT CONNECTION
Traditional double lap plain tiles are one of the oldest forms of roof covering in the UK. The term
‘double lap’ is applied to the way that the plain tiles are laid on the roof to create an effective barrier to
water. Plain tiles, like slates, are uniform in shape and have no side interlocks, allowing water to enter
the gaps between the tiles. To drain this water away safely there must be another tile below each joint.
This means that at any point of the roof there is at least a double layer of tiles, hence the term ‘double
lap’ – at the head lap there ar.e actually three layers of tiles.