Module2 SC ECSDSK

Satellite
Communications
Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

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Module-II
Elements of Communication Satellite Design
By
Dr.G.Anitha
Assistant Professor
Department of EECE
GITAM Institute of Technology(GIT)
GITAM Deemed to be University
Visakhapatnam-530045
Email: aguttave@gitam.edu
12/04/21 Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite Communications 2

Module-II
Syllabus
Elements of Communication Satellite Design:
Spacecraft subsystems, reliability considerations,
spacecraft integration.
Outcome of the module is

Students will be able to Understand the Space
segment subsystems, its operation and spacecraft
integration.

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Introduction:
Satellite communication consists of mainly
two segments.
1.Space segment
2.Earth segment
Accordingly there will be two types of subsystems

namely,
Space segment subsystems and Earth segment
subsystems.

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As shown in the figure, the communication takes
place between space segment subsystems and earth
segment subsystems through communication links.
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Space segment and Earth Segment:
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Spacecraft Subsystems

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Space segment-TLC Satellite Openview

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The Bus & the Payload :
The equipment carried aboard the satellite can be
classified to:
1.The Bus: It refers to not only the vehicle which carries the
payload, but also to various subsystems that provide
The Power Supply
Attitude orbit control systems
Thermal control
Tracking, Telemetry and command
Structures and Mechanisms
Propulsion
All these are required to service the payload.

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2.The Payload: It is the equipment used to provide the
service for which the satellite has been launched.
The main sections of the Payload are
The Transponder and the Antenna sub systems
In a communications satellite, the equipment which

provides the connecting link between the satellite’s
transmit and receive antennas is referred to as the
Transponder.

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1.The Bus SS Contd..
1.Power Supply
 The satellite present in an orbit should be operated
continuously during its life span.
 So, the satellite requires internal power in order to
operate various electronic systems and
communications payload that are present in it.
 Power system is a vital subsystem, which provides the
power required for working of a satellite.
i. Solar Cells
ii. Batteries

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i. Solar Cells
 Basically, the solar cells produce electrical power
(current) from incident sunlight.
 The individual solar cells generate very less power.
 So, in order to generate more power, group of cells that
are present in an array form can be used. These are
Solar arrays.
 Two types of solar arrays
 Those are cylindrical solar arrays and rectangular
solar arrays or solar sail.

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 Cylindrical Solar arrays
are used in spinning
satellites.
 Only part of the cylindrical
array will be covered under
sunshine at any given time.
 Due to this, electric power
gets generated from the
partial solar array. This is
the drawback of this type.

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Rectangular Solar Arrays:
The drawback of cylindrical
solar arrays is overcome with
Solar sail.
These arrays produces more
power because all solar cells of
solar sail are exposed to sun
light.

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ii.Batteries
 Satellite pass through shadow region on the opposite
side of the Earth from the Sun.
 Depending on the type of orbit, this can happen just a
few times a year or every few hours.
 During these so called Eclipses, the solar panel cannot
produce electrical energy.
 At that time, power is provided by long-life batteries.
 Batteries produce power to other subsystems during
launching of satellite also.

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Power Conditioning Unit:
 Controls the charging current and dumps excess current

from the solar cells into heaters or load resistors on
cold side of the satellite.
 Sensors on the batteries, power regulator and solar cells
monitor the temperature, Voltage and current and
supply data to both the onboard control system and
controlling earth station via the telemetry downlink.
 Figure shows the solar cell panels for the HS 376
satellite manufactured by Hughes Space and
Communications Company.

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Power Supply: HS 376 Satellite
 216cm diameter x 660 cm long. •

HS 376 S
 The outer cylinder is telescoped
over the inner during launch
sequence.
 940W dc power that may drop to
760 W after 10 years.
 During eclipse, 2Nickel-
cadmium long-life batteries are
used with 830W (at the end of
life, battery recharge time is less
than 16h).
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Power Supply: Optus-B-HS 601
 Higher Powers can be
achieved with solar sails.
 Solar Sails are folded during
launch phase and when fully
extended, they stretch to 67ft
from tip to tip.
 Provide 2 to 6KW of dc
power.
 Nickel hydrogen batteries
are used during eclipse time.
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2.Attitude and Orbit Control
Systems(AOCS):
The AOCS subsystem is divided into the following
two parts.
Attitude Control Subsystem
Orbit Control Subsystem
Attitude Control Subsystem:

The attitude of a satellite refers to its orientation in
space with respect to earth.
Much of the equipment carried aboard a satellite is
there for the purpose of controlling its attitude.

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 Attitude control is necessary so that the antennas,
which usually have narrow directional beams, are
pointed correctly towards earth.
 In case of Earth environmental satellites, the earth

sensing instruments must cover the required
regions of the earth, which also requires attitude
control.

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 Several forces known as disturbance torques
affect the attitude of the spacecraft are
i. Gravitational forces from the sun, moon,

and planets;
ii. Solar pressures acting on the spacecraft body,

antennas or solar panels;
iii. Earth’s magnetic field.

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Methods for Attitude control:
1.Horizon detectors:
 Orientation is monitored on the spacecraft by infrared
sensors/horizon detectors, which detect the rim of earth
against the background of space.
 Four detectors, one for each quadrant, are used to
establish a reference point, usually the center of the earth,
and any shift in orientation is detected by one or more of
the sensors.
A control signal is generated that activates attitude
control devices to restore proper orientation.

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2.Controlling Torques:
Controlling torques may be generated in a number of
ways.
Passive attitude control- refers to the use of
mechanisms which stabilize the satellite without putting
a drain on the satellite’s energy supplies; at most,
infrequent use is made of these supplies, for example,
when thruster jets are impulsed to provide corrective
torque.
Examples of passive attitude control are spin
stabilization and gravity gradient stabilization.
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Spin stabilization:
 In this method, the body of the satellite rotates

around its spin axis.
 In general, it can be rotated at 30 to 100 rpm in
order to produce a force, which is of gyroscopic
type.
 Due to this, the spin axis gets stabilized and the
satellite will point in the same direction. Satellites
are of this type are called as spinners.

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 Spinner contains a drum, which is
of cylindrical shape.
 This drum is covered with solar
cells. Power systems and rockets
are present in this drum.
 Communication subsystem is
placed on top of the drum. An
electric motor drives this
communication system.

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 The direction of this motor will be opposite to the
rotation of satellite body, so that the antennas point
towards earth.
 The satellites, which perform this kind of operation
are called as de-spin.
 During launching phase, the satellite spins when
the small radial gas jets are operated.
 After this, the de-spin system operates in order to
make the TTCM subsystem antennas point towards
earth station.

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 Active attitude control- With active attitude
control, there is no overall stabilizing torque present
to resist the disturbance torques.
 Instead, corrective torques are applied as required in
response to disturbance torques.
 Methods used to generate active control torques
include momentum wheels, electromagnetic coils,
and mass expulsion devices, such as gas jets and ion
thrusters.

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Three Axis Method:
 In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by

using one or more momentum wheels. This
method is called as three-axis method.
 The advantage of this method is that the
orientation of the satellite in three axes will be
controlled and no need of rotating satellite’s main
body.
 The three axis which define a satellite’s attitude
are its Roll, Pitch, and Yaw (RPY) axis.

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 Roll axis is considered in
the direction in which the
satellite moves in orbital
plane.
 Yaw axis is considered in
the direction towards earth.
 Pitch axis is considered in
the direction, which is
perpendicular to orbital
plane.

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 Let XR, YR and ZR are the roll axis, yaw axis and
pitch axis respectively.
 These three axis are defined by considering the
satellite’s position as reference. These three axes
define the attitude of satellite.
 Let X, Y and Z are another set of Cartesian axes. This
set of three axis provides the information about
orientation of the satellite with respect to reference
axes.
 If there is a change in attitude of the satellite, then
the angles between the respective axes will be
changed.
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In this method, each axis contains two gas jets.
They will provide the rotation in both directions of the
three axes.
The first gas jet will be operated for some period of
time, when there is a requirement of satellite’s motion in a
particular axis direction.
The second gas jet will be operated for same period of
time, when the satellite reaches to the desired position. So,
the second gas jet will stop the motion of satellite in that
axis direction.

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3. Station Keeping:
Orbit Control Subsystem:

Orbit control, often called Station Keeping, is
the process required to maintain a satellite in its
proper orbit location.
It is similar to attitude control, although not
functionally the same.
Orbit control is usually maintained with the
same thruster system as is attitude control.

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 Longitudinal drift is
due to the non-
spherical properties
of the earth.
 Latitude drift will be
induced primarily by
gravitational forces
from the sun and the
moon.

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Methods to Correct Station
keeping:
1.East-West station keeping maneuvers
2. North-South station keeping maneuvers
1. East-West station keeping maneuvers
The non-spherical (oblate) properties of the earth,
primarily exhibited as an equatorial bulge, cause the
satellite to drift slowly in longitude along the equatorial
plane.
Equatorial ellipticity causes Satellites to drift slowly
along orbit to one of stable points : 75o E and 105o W

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 Control jets are pulsed to impart an opposite
velocity component to the satellite, which causes
the satellite to drift back to its nominal position.
 These corrections are referred to as East-West
station keeping maneuvers, which are
accomplished periodically every two to three
weeks.

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2. North-South station keeping maneuvers
Latitude drift will be induced primarily by gravitational
forces from the sun and the moon.
These forces cause the satellite inclination to change
about 0.075◦ per month if it is left uncorrected. Jets are
pulsed to correct the inclination to zero.
Periodic pulsing to compensate for these forces, called
North-South station keeping maneuvers, must also be
accomplished periodically to maintain the nominal satellite
orbit location.

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4.Tracking, Telemetry, Command,
and Monitoring (TTC&M) :
 The tracking, telemetry, command, and

monitoring subsystem provides essential
spacecraft management and control functions
to keep the satellite operating safely in orbit.
 The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and

the ground are usually separate from the
communications system links.

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 The satellite TTC&M subsystems comprise the
antenna, command receiver, tracking and telemetry
transmitter, and possibly tracking sensors.
 The word ‘Telemetry’ means measurement at a
distance.
 Telemetry data are received from the other
subsystems of the spacecraft, such as the payload,
power, attitude control, and thermal control.

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TRACKING:
Tracking refers to the determination of the current

orbit, position, and movement of the spacecraft.
The tracking function is accomplished by a number of
techniques, usually involving satellite beacon signals,
which are received at the TTC&M earth station.
The Doppler shift of the beacon (or the telemetry
carrier) is monitored to determine the rate at which the
range is changing (the range rate).

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 Angular measurements from one or more earth
terminals can be used to determine spacecraft
location.
 The range can be determined by observing the time
delay of a pulse or sequence of pulses transmitted
from the satellite.
 Acceleration and velocity sensors on the satellite
can be used to monitor orbital location and changes
in orbital location.

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TELEMETRY :
 The telemetry function involves the collection of data
from sensors onboard the spacecraft and the relay of this
information to the ground.
 The telemetered data include parameters such as
i. voltage and current conditions in the power
subsystem
ii. temperature of critical subsystems
iii. status of switches and relays in the
communications and antenna subsystems
iv. fuel tank pressures
v. attitude control sensor status.

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COMMAND:
 Command is the complementary function to telemetry.
 The command system relays specific control and
operations information from the ground to the
spacecraft, often in response to telemetry information
received from the spacecraft.
Parameters involved in typical command links include:
 changes and corrections in attitude control and orbital
control
 antenna pointing and control
 transponder mode of operation
 battery voltage control

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The Monitoring system collects data from many
sensors within the satellite and analyse these data to
the controlling Earth station.
Fig: TT&C Subsystem

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5.Thermal control:
 Thermal radiation from the sun heats one side of the
spacecraft, while the side facing outer space is exposed
to the extremely low temperatures of space.
 Much of the equipment in the satellite itself generates
heat, which must be controlled.
 Low orbiting satellites can also be affected by thermal
radiation reflected from the earth itself.
 The satellite thermal control system is designed to
control the large thermal gradients generated in the
satellite by removing or relocating the heat to provide
an as stable as possible environment for the satellite.
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Measures for Thermal radiation:
 Thermal blankets and Thermal shields are placed

at critical locations to provide insulation.

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 Heat pumps are used to relocate heat from power
devices such as travelling wave power amplifiers to
outer walls or heat sinks to provide a more effective
thermal path for heat to escape.

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 Radiation mirrors are placed around electronic
subsystems, particularly for spin stabilized
satellites, to protect critical equipment.
 Thermal heaters may also be used to maintain
adequate temperature conditions for some
components such as propulsion lines or thrusters,
where low temperatures would cause severe
problems.

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6.Transponders:
 A Transponder is the series of interconnected units
which forms a single communications channel
between the receive and transmit antennas in a
communication satellite.
(or)
 The subsystem, which provides the connecting link
between transmitting and receiving antennas of a
satellite is known as Transponder.
 It performs the functions of both transmitter and
receiver (Responder) in a satellite. Hence, the word
‘Transponder’ is obtained from both Transmitter
(Trans) and Responder (ponder).
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 A transponder- receives the signal from
transmitted earth station through uplink,
amplifies it converts into another frequency and
retransmits to the earth station through downlink.

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Block diagram of a
Transponder:

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A typical communications satellite will contain
several transponders, and some of the equipment
may be common to more than one transponder.
Some communication satellite has 12 or 24 or more

transponders.
Each transponder generally operates in a different

frequency band, with the allocated frequency
spectrum band divided into slots, with a specified
centre frequency and operating bandwidth.
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The number of transponders can be doubled by the
use of polarization frequency reuse, where two
carriers at the same frequency, but with orthogonal
polarization, are used.
Both linear polarization (horizontal and vertical

sense) and circular polarization (right-hand and
left-hand sense) have been used.
By making use of polarization isolation, this

number can be doubled.
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Polarization isolation refers to the fact that carriers,
which may be on the same frequency but with
opposite senses of polarization, can be isolated from
one another by receiving antennas matched to the
incoming polarization.
With linear polarization, vertically and horizontally
polarized carriers can be separated in this way, and
with circular polarization, left-hand circular and
right-hand circular polarizations can be separated.
Because the carriers with opposite senses of
polarization may overlap in frequency, this
technique is referred to as frequency reuse.
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 Figure shows part of the frequency and polarization
plan for a C-band(4-8Ghz) communications satellite.

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Block diagram of Transponder:
0dB reference level 4-Demultiplexer

1-Input Filter 5- Attenuator (lower position)
2-Wideband Receiver 6-Amplifier
3-3dB Coupler 7-Multiplexer
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Structure of a Transponder:


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Wideband Receiver:
The incoming/uplink, frequency range is 5.925 to 6.425GHz

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Input Demultiplexer:
 The input De-MUX separates the
broadband into transponder
frequency channels.
 Odd/Even numbered groups
provide more frequency
separation which reduces
adjacent channel interference.

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 The output from De-MUX is fed to a power
splitter which feeds the two separate chains of
circulators.
 Channelizing is achieved using BPFs.
 The frequency conversion shifts the carriers to the
downlink frequency band, which is also 500 MHz
wide, extending from 3.7 to 4.2 GHz.
 At this point the signals are channelized into
frequency bands which represent the individual
transponder bandwidths.

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High Power amplifier:
 HPA Provides the output power for each transponder channel.

 Each HPA is preceded by an input attenuator to permit each
amplifier to be adjusted to the desired level.
 The Traveling-Wave Tubes (TWT) are very common devices
for HPAs since it provides amplification over a wide range of
bandwidth. Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite
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7.Antenna Subsystem:
The antennas carried onboard the satellite provide
the dual functions of receiving the Uplink signals and
transmitting the Downlink signals.
Antennas range from Omni directional (dipole type)

to highly directional antennas required for
telecommunications purposes and TV relay and
broadcast.
 Directional beams are usually produced by means of

reflector-type antennas, the parabolic reflector being
the most common.
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Gain & Beam width:
The gain of the parabolic reflector, relative to isotropic

radiator is given by
2
 D 
G  I  
  
ηI-is aperture efficiency(typically 0.55)& λ-wavelength,

D- reflector diameter
The -3dB beam width in degrees:

 3dB  70
D

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Comparing C-band and Ku-band, the largest
reflectors are those for the 6/4-GHz band.
Comparable performance can be obtained with

considerably smaller reflectors in the 14/12-GHz
band.
Satellites used for mobile services in the L-band

employ much larger antennas (with reflector areas in
the order of 100 m2 to 200 m2).

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Antenna subsystem for INTELSAT VI:

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 Figure-1 shows the antenna subsystem of the
INTELSAT VI satellite.
 This provides a good illustration of the level of
complexity which has been reached in large
communications satellites.
 The largest reflectors are for the 6/4-GHz hemisphere
and zone coverage’s as shown in Figure-2.
 These are fed from horn arrays, and various groups of
horns can be excited to produce the beam shape
required.

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 As can be seen, separate arrays are used for transmit
and receive.
 Each array has 146 dual-polarization horns. In the
14/11-GHz band, circular reflectors are used to
provide spot beams, one for east and one for west as
shown in Figure-2.
 These beams are fully steerable. Each spot is fed by
a single horn which is used for both transmit and
receive.
 Wide beams for global coverage are produced by
simple horn antennas at 6/4GHz.
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These horns beam the signal directly to the earth
without the use of reflectors.
From Figure-1, Simple biconical dipole antenna is
used for tracking and control signals.
The complete antenna platform and the
communications payload are despun to keep the
antennas pointing to their correct locations on earth.
The same feed horn may be used to transmit and
receive carriers with the same polarization.
The transmit and receive signals are separated in a
device known as a diplexer.

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 Polarization discrimination also may be used to
separate the transmit and receive signals using the
same feed horn.
 For example, the horn may be used to transmit

horizontally polarized waves in the downlink
frequency band, while simultaneously receiving
vertically polarized waves in the uplink frequency
band.

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 The polarization separation takes place in a
device known as an orthocoupler, or orthogonal
mode transducer (OMT).
 Separate horns also may be used for the transmit

and receive functions, with both horns using the
same reflector.

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Antenna Examples: Horn Feeders
(a) (b) (c)
Figure: Horn antennas a)smooth-walled conical b)corrugated

c)pyramidal
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Antenna Examples: Parabolic
Reflectors

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Antenna Examples: Double
Reflectors

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Antenna Examples: Multifeed
reflector

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Antenna Example: C band GEO
Antenna

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Reliability Considerations

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Introduction:
 Once a satellite enters an orbit, there is little
possibility of repairing components that fail or adding
more fuel for station keeping.
 The components that make up a satellite must
therefore have very high reliability in the hostile
environment of outer space, and a strategy must be
devised that allows some components to fail without
causing the entire communication capacity of the
satellite to be lost.
For this, two approaches are used
 Space qualification
 Redundancy
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Space qualification:
 The process of reliability testing which ensures

the space worthiness of each component and sub
system of a spacecraft as well as that of the entire
spacecraft as a complete system is called as space
qualification.
 SQ of Every part of the Satellite to ensure that it has a

long life expectancy in orbit.

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 Outer space, at geostationary orbit distances, is a
harsh environment.
 The sun irradiates the satellite with 1.4 kW of heat
and light on each square meter of exposed surface.
 When surfaces are in shadow, surface temperature
will fall toward absolute zero.
 Electronic equipment can’t operate at such extremes
of temperature & heated or cooled so that it’s
temperature stays within the range 0˚ to 75 ˚C.
 This requires a thermal control system.

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 The first stage in ensuring high reliability in a
satellite is by selection and screening of every
component used.
 Past operational & test experience of components
indicates which components can be expected to have
good reliability.
 Each component is tested individually to ensure that
it meets its specification.
 This process is known as quality control or quality
assurance & is vital in building any equipment that is
to be reliable.

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 Once individual components and subsystems have
been space qualified, the complete satellite must be
tested as a system to ensure that its many systems are
reliable.
 When a satellite is designed, three prototype models
are often build and tested.
1. Mechanical model
2. Thermal model
3. Electrical model

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 Mechanical model- It contains all the structural &
mechanical parts that will be included in the satellite &
is tested to ensure that all moving parts operate
correctly in vacuum, over a wide temperature range. It
also subjected to vibration & shock testing.
 Thermal model- It contains all electronics packages
and other components that must be maintained at the
correct temperature.
 Electrical model- contains all the electronic parts of
the satellite and is tested for correct electrical
performance under total vacuum and a wide range of
temperatures.
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 Testing carried out on models is designed to
overstress the system and induce failure in any weak
components.
 Temperature cycling will be carried out to 10%
beyond expected extremes; structural loads 50%
above those expected may be applied.
 Electrical equipment will be subjected to excess
voltage and current drain to test for food electronic
and thermal reliability.

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Reliability:
Reliability need to be calculated for two reasons:
Generally, one want to know what the probability is
that subsystem will still be working after a given time
period?
 Or we need to provide redundant components or
subsystems where probability of failure is too great to
be accepted?
Reliability is a mathematical technique which gives an
idea about the Probability of failure.

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 The reliability of a component can be expressed in
terms of probability of failure after time t as Rt.
 For most electronic equipment, probability of failure
is higher at beginning of life i.e., burn–in period.
 As the component ages, failure becomes more likely.
 Mathematically reliability of device or sub-system is
defined as,
N s (t ) Number of surviving components at time t

R t   
N0 Number of components at start of test period

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 The number of components that failed in time-t is
Nf(t)=N0-Ns(t)
 The other improvement parameter in reliability study is
the Meantime before failure (MTBF) and is given by
N0
1
MTBF  m 
N0 t
i 1
i
where ti = time after which ith device fails.

 MTBF is related to average failure rate-λ by

12/04/21 87
Communications
 The failure rate ⅄ is often given as average failure
rate per 109 hours.
 In terms of reliability of subsystem or device it is
given by
 Therefore, the reliability of a device decreases

exponentially with time.

12/04/21 88
Communications
Bath–tub curve:
 For most electronic

equipment, the
probability of failure is
higher at the beginning
of life(burn-in) and at
end.
 The bath tub curve is a
graph of probability of
failure versus time.

12/04/21 89
Communications
Three types of failures are identified from the bath tub
curve:
1.Initial failures 2.Chance failures 3.Wear out failures
1.Initial failures:
These appear shortly after t=0 and are characterised by a
high failure rate. The initial high failure rate is attributed
to manufacturing faults, defects in materials, etc.

12/04/21 90
Communications
2.Chance failures:
These occur during a period in which probability of
failure is constant and characterized by low failure rate.
Low failure rate is attributed to random component
failures. They are caused by severe and unpredictable
environmental conditions.
3.Wear out failures:
It follows the region of chance of failures with an
increase in the failure rate until the end of life of the
component is observed. This can be attributed to
component wear out.
12/04/21 91
Communications
 Therefore the early failures can be reduced by testing
the components to determine reliability, causes of
failure and expected lifetime. This testing is
performed in vigorous condition experienced by the
components.
 The random failures can be reduced by using
reliability engineering techniques.
 The beginning of the wear out failure can be delayed
by improving the type of materials used to make
satellite components.

12/04/21 92
Communications
Redundancy:
 By using redundant components, reliability of

subsystem can be increased.
 The redundant device can incorporate with the

existing operating devices/ components either in
series or in parallel or may be mixed.

12/04/21 93
Communications
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Communications
12/04/21 95
Communications
Spacecraft Integration:

12/04/21 96
Communications
12/04/21 97
Communications
Thank You

12/04/21 98
Communications

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Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

12/04/21 Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite Communications 2

Outcome of the module is

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Accordingly there will be two types of subsystems

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

12/04/21 Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite 6

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

The Transponder and the Antenna sub systems

In a communications satellite, the equipment which

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

 Controls the charging current and dumps excess current

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

 216cm diameter x 660 cm long. •

Attitude Control Subsystem:

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

 In case of Earth environmental satellites, the earth

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

i. Gravitational forces from the sun, moon,

ii. Solar pressures acting on the spacecraft body,

iii. Earth’s magnetic field.

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

 In this method, the body of the satellite rotates

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

 In this method, we can stabilize the satellite by

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Orbit Control Subsystem:

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

 The tracking, telemetry, command, and

 The TTC&M links between the spacecraft and

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Tracking refers to the determination of the current

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Fig: TT&C Subsystem

 Thermal blankets and Thermal shields are placed

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Department of EECE, EEC 451 Satellite

Some communication satellite has 12 or 24 or more