Skeletal System

Structure & Function of Joints

 Skeletal system
Axial versus Appendicular Skeleton
The bones of the skeletal system can be
grouped into two categories: the
appendicular skeleton and the axial skeleton.
The axial skeleton consists of the skull,
hyoid bone, sternum, ribs, and vertebral
column, including the sacrum and coccyx,
forming the central, bony axis of the body.
The appendicular skeleton is composed of
the bones of the appendages, or extremities.
All bones of the upper extremity, including
the scapula and clavicle, and all bones in the
lower extremity, including the pelvis, are part
of the appendicular skeleton. Figure beside
differentiates the axial and appendicular
skeleton and labels the major bones of the
body.
 Skeletal system
Bone: Anatomy and Function
Bone provides the rigid framework of the body and equips
muscles with a system of levers. This text describes bone as
having two primary types of tissue: cortical (compact) bone
and cancellous bone (Figure beside).
Cortical (compact) bone is relatively dense and typically
lines the outermost portions of bones. This type of bone is
extremely strong, especially with regard to absorbing
compressive forces through a bone’s longitudinal axis.
Cancellous bone is porous and typically composes the
inner portions of a bone. The porous, web-like structure of
cancellous bone not only lightens bones but, similar to a
series of mechanical struts, redirects forces toward weight-
bearing surfaces covered by articular cartilage.
.
 Skeletal system
Most bones have common structural features important for
maintaining their health and integrity. Figure beside illustrates the
primary components found in a bone
The diaphysis is the central shaft of the bone. It is similar to a thick,
hollow tube and is composed mostly of cortical bone, to withstand
the large compressive forces from weight bearing.
The epiphyses are the expanded portions of bone that arise from
the diaphysis (shaft); each long bone has a proximal and a distal
epiphysis. Primarily composed of cancellous (spongy) bone, each
epiphysis typically articulates with another bone, forming a joint,
and helps transmit weight-bearing forces across regions of the
body.
 Articular cartilage lines the articular surface of each epiphysis,
acting as a shock absorber between joints.
Each long bone is covered by a thin, tough membrane called
the periosteum. This highly vascular and innervated membrane
helps secure the attachments of muscles and ligaments to bone.
The medullary canal (cavity) is the central
hollow tube within the diaphysis of a long bone.
This region is important for storing bone marrow
and provides a passageway for nutrient-carrying
arteries.
The endosteum is a membrane that lines the
surface of the medullary canal.
Many of the cells important for forming and
repairing bone are housed within the endosteum.
Bone is a dynamic tissue that is constantly being
remodeled in response to internal and external
forces. Clinically, this is an important fact, because
bones will become stronger from forces caused by
weight-bearing activities and muscular
contractions, or significantly weaker after joint
immobilization, periods of restricted weight
bearing, or extended inactivity such as is seen in
those who have been on bed rest.
Skeletal system

Types of Bones
Bones can be classified into
five basic categories based on
their structure, or shape: long,
short, flat, irregular, and
sesamoid

A figure highlighting the primary types of bones:

short (A), long (B), flat (C), irregular (D), and sesamoid (E). 
 Structure and Function of Joints
Classification of Joints
Joints are commonly classified by their anatomic structure and
subsequent movement potential. On the basis of this system,
there are three classifications of joints in the body: synarthrosis,
amphiarthrosis, and diarthrosis.
Synarthrosis
A synarthrosis is a junction between bones that allows little to no
movement. Examples include the sutures of the skull. The
primary function of this type of joint is to firmly bind bones
together and transmit forces from one bone to another (Top
Figure)
Amphiarthrosis
An amphiarthrosis is a type of joint that is formed primarily by
fibrocartilage and hyaline cartilage. Although these joints allow
limited amounts of motion, they play an important role in shock
absorption. For example, the intervertebral body joints of the
spine allow relatively little motion, but the thick layers of
fibrocartilage that form the intervertebral discs absorb and
disperse the large compressive forces often transmitted through
this region (Figure down).
.
 Structure and Function of Joints
Diarthrosis: The Synovial Joint
A diarthrosis is an articulation that contains a fluid-filled joint cavity
between two or more bones. Because of the presence of a synovial
membrane, diarthrodial joints are frequently referred to as synovial
joints. Seven different categories of diarthrodial (synovial) joints exist,
each with unique functional abilities; however, all synovial joints
contain the seven common elements listed below (Figure beside):
• Synovial fluid: Provides joint lubrication and nutrition
• Articular cartilage: Dissipates and absorbs compressive forces
• Articular capsule: Connective tissue that surrounds and binds the
joint together
• Synovial membrane: Produces synovial fluid
• Capsular ligaments: Thickened regions of connective tissue that limit
excessive joint motion
• Blood vessels: Provide nutrients to the joint
• Sensory nerves: Transmit signals regarding pain and proprioception
 Structure and Function of Joints
Classification of Synovial Joints
Anatomists classify synovial joints into categories on the basis of
their unique structural features. The unique structure of each
joint determines its functional potential. The following analogies
may be helpful in understanding the structure and function of
most joints within the body.
Hinge Joint
Similar to the hinge of a door, the hinge joint (Figure A & B)
allows motion in only one plane about a single axis of rotation.
Examples include the humeroulnar joint (elbow) and the
interphalangeal joints of the fingers and toes
Pivot Joint
The pivot joint (Figure C & D) allows rotation about a single
longitudinal axis of rotation, similar to the rotation of a doorknob.
Examples include the proximal radioulnar joint and the
atlantoaxial joint between the first and second cervical vertebrae.
 Structure and Function of Joints
Ellipsoid Joint
An ellipsoid joint (Figure beside) has
one partner with a convex elongated
surface in one dimension mated with
a matching concave surface on its
partner. The structure of this type of
joint allows motion to occur in two
planes. The radiocarpal (wrist) joint
provides a good example of an
ellipsoid joint.
 Structure and Function of
Joints
Ball-and-Socket Joint
The ball-and-socket joint Figure
is composed of the articulation
between a spherical convex
surface and a matching cup-like
socket. Both the glenohumeral
(shoulder) joint and the hip joint
are ball-and-socket joints,
allowing wide ranges of motion in
all three planes.
 Structure and Function of
Joints
Plane Joint
The plane joint in the Figure is composed of
the articulation between two relatively flat
bony surfaces. Plane joints typically allow
limited amounts of motion, but the lack of
bony restriction often allows these joints to
slide and rotate in many directions. The
intercarpal joints of the hand, many of which
are plane joints, provide a good example of
how minimal amounts of motion in several
joints can be “added up” to provide a
significant amount of mobility to a particular
region.
 Structure and Function of Joints
Saddle Joint
Saddle joints (Figure beside) typically allow
extensive motion, primarily in two planes.
Each partner of a saddle joint has two
surfaces: one concave and one convex—
similar to a horseback rider sitting on a
saddle (Figure beside- A). These reciprocally
curved surfaces are oriented approximately
at right angles to one another, producing a
high degree of stability as the joint surfaces
interlock. Examples include the
sternoclavicular joint and the
carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
 Structure and Function of Joints

Condyloid Joint
Condyloid joints such as the tibiofemoral
(knee) or metacarpophalangeal joints of the
fingers (Figure beside) are composed of the
articulation between a large, rounded,
convex member and a relatively shallow
concave member. Most often, these joints
allow 2 degrees of freedom; ligaments as
well as the bony structure of the joint
typically prevent motion from occurring in a
third plane.