BIOLOGY FORM 5

CHAPTER 2:LOCOMOTION and

SUPPORT

TO: MRS ANNAMAL

2.1 Support System and Locomotion
in Humans and Animals
Support system and locomotion
Locomotion refers to the ability of whole organism to move from one place to another.
Movement refers to a change in a position of any part of an organism’s body it does not
necessarily involve locomotion.
Support is provided by a framework called skeleton.
There are three different types of skeletons in animals:
I. Exoskeleton(on the outside of the body;external)
a) Support the important internal organs and protect the internal structures from damage.
b) It enable the organisms to move from place to place.
c) The cuticle is covered with wax tom prevent water loss.
II.Endoskeleton(internal)
d) Found in all vertebrates.
e) Maintaining the body shape
f) Supporting the soft body tissues
g) Protecting the internal organs from injury
III.Hydrostatic skeleton(made of fluid)
a)Consists of internal fluids within the confined spaces of body.
 Support and
locomotion with an
endoskeleton

1. The human skeleton

consists mainly of
bones but a few parts
such as the nose, ears,
and the soft discs
between the vertebrate
are made of cartilage.
2. The skeleton has two
main parts the axial
skeleton and the
appendicular skeleton.
3. The axial skeleton
a)Consists of the skull,
vertebral, column,ribs,
and sternum.
Support and locomotion with an endoskeleton
1.The skull consists 22 bones, rests
on top of the vertebral column.
2. It includes:
a) The cranial bones which enclose
and protect the brain, and
b) The facial bones which protect
and provide support for the
entrances to the digestive and
respiratory system.
3. The bones which make up the
skull are held securely together
by immovable joints called
sutures.
Thoracic cage
 The thorax consists of a skeleton
portion called the thoraric cage.
I. Thoracic encloses and protects
the organs in the thoracic cavity
and upper abdominal cavity,
 Twelve pairs of ribs make up the
sides of the thoracic cavity. They
articulate with twelve vertebrate of
the thoracic region.
 The sternum or breastbone is flat,
narrow bone located in the centre
of the enterior thoracic wall.
The vertebral column
a. Encloses and protects the spinal cord
b. Support the head
c. Serve as a point of attachment for the
ribs,pelvic girdle and the muscle of
the back
Has 33 vertebrate consists of
d. 7 cervical vertebrate
e. 12 thoraric vertebrate
f. 5 lumber vertebrate
g. 5 sacral lumbar(sacrum)
h. 4 caudal vertebrate(coccyx)
 The vertebrate
a) atypical vertebrate has a centrum, an opening called vertebral foramen and processes.
b) the spinal cord goes the vertebral foremen

Thoracic vertebra
Have spinous processes that are
Cervical vertebra long and direct downwards.
Have transverse foramen Spinous and transverse processes
serve as points of attachment of
through which blood muscles and ligaments.
vessels and nerve pass.
 The appendicular
skeleton
Consists of the pectoral
gardle,upper
limbs,pelvic girdle, and
the lower limbs

Sacrum and coccyx

The sacrum is a triangular
bone formed through
The pectora girdle
the fusion of five bones.
Consists of 2 bones: the
The coccyx is also
triangular in shape and clavicle and the scapula.
formed through the
fusion of 4 bones.
The clavicle or
collarbone,is long,sladder
S-shape bone that is
positioned horizontolly
above the first rib.
The scapula,or shoulder
blade, is a large,flat,
triangular bone situated
in the posterior of the
thorax.
 The pelvic girdle

 Consists 2 hip bones

 It provides a strong and stable support for the
vertebral column.
 The hip bones are joined other at a joint called the
pubic symphysis.
 The upper limb is the longest
The upper limb bone of the upper limb.
It articulates with the scapula at
the shoulder and the ulna and
the radius at the elbow.
The carpus or writs of the hand
consists of 8 small bones called
carpals.
The metacarpus or a palm of the
hand contains 5 bones called
metacarpals.
The phalanges are the bones of 5
fingers.
The total phalanges in each
hand 14.
There are 2 phalanges in the
thumb. The other 4 digits have 3
phalangs each.
  The femur is longest,heaviest and
The lower limb strongest bone the body.
 The head of the femur forms a ball-
and socket joint with the hip bone.
 The other end of the femur forms a
hinge joint with the tibia.
 The patella, or kneecap,is a small
triangular protects the knee joint, a
hinge joint.
 The tibia bears the weight of the
body.
 The fibula, which is parallel to the
tibia,is smaller than tibia.
 The tartus or the ankle of the foot
contains 7 bones called tartals.
 5 bones called the metatarsals from
the skeleton of the metatarsus.
The structure of a joint
Flexible connentive tissue from joints
holding bones together to allow
movements.
 A joint is the place where 2 or more
bones meet.
a) At a joint, the bones are held
together by though sheets of elastic
fibres called ligaments.
b) They allow bones to move against 1
another and prevent the dislocation
of the joint during movement.
c) A synovial joint is a joint which has a
cavity filled with fluid.
d) Synovial joints are freely movable.
e) A typical synovial joint has 4
maintains features.
The synovial membrane secretes synovial fluid
into the synovial cavity.
The synovial fluid acts as a lubricant which
reduces the friction between the ends of the
bones.
The end surfaces of the bones are covered with
cartilage.
The cartilage cushion the joints, absorbs shock
and reduces the friction between the ends of
bones.
The cartilage also protects the bones from
wearing away.
The inner surface of the capsule is lined with a
thin layer of synovial membrane.
The joint capsule is an enclose reinforced by and
strengthened with ligaments.
 Hinge joint
 A hinge joint allows the
movement of bones in one
plane.
 Hinge joints are found in the
elbows, phalanges of the finger
and toes, and in the knees.
 A knee joints allows the lower leg
to swing back and forth, like a
hinge on a door.
Ball- and- socket joint
A ball –and- socket joint allows
rotational movement of bones in
all directions.
It allows the swinging of arms
and legs in a circular motion.
Examples of a ball-and –socket
are the shoulder joint between
the humerus and the pectoral
girdle, and the hip joint between
the femur and the pelvic girdle.
 What are tendons andSkeleton
skeleton muscles?
muscles
Tendons
1. Tendons are tough, strong,
and elastic strands of dense
connective tissues.
2. Tendons join skeletal
muscles to the bones.
1, Antagonistic muscle are a pair
of muscle which work together to
allow coordinated movement of
the skeletal joints.
a) This means that one muscle
contracts, the other muscle
relaxes
b) One muscle pulls the bone in 1
direction and other pulls in
the opposite direction.
 Skeletal muscle are responsible for the
voluntary movements of the body.
 They are attached 2 bones across
joints through the tendons.
 The bones of the skeleton to which the
muscle are attached operate as levers,
 Skeletal muscle produce movements
by exerting the force to pull on the
tendons which are attached to bones.
 As a muscle contracts, it becomes
shorter as it pulls on the attached
bone.
 Since a muscle cannot push, but only
pull, it has to be extended back to its
original length by the opposing action
of another muscle.
 How movement is brought about in
a limb
1. Straightening the forearm 2.Bending the forearm

When the biceps contracts,

the tendons transmit the
pulling force by the
contraction to the forearm.
At the same time, the triceps
relaxes.
As the result ,the elbow joint
 When the triceps contracts and bends, the forearm moves
the biceps relaxes, the forearm upward.
is straightened.
 The structure of a muscle
 1. Skeleton muscle such as the
biceps consists of bundles of
muscle fibres and large supply of
nerves and blood vessels.
 2. A muscle fibre is a long
cylindrical cell that contains
numerous nuclei.
 3. A large skeleton muscle
contains thousands of such cells.
4
4. A muscle fibre is made of
bundles of smaller units called
myofibrils.
5. Each myofibril is made up of 2
types of protein filaments:
actin and myosin.
6. The interaction of both these
proteins causes muscle
contractions.
1. Since the skeleton muscle is a
voluntary muscle each skeletal
muscle has a nerve ending that
controls its activity.
2. Skeleton muscle contract in
response to nerve impulses from
the nervous system. Nerve
impulses travel along the plasma
membrane and into the interior of
the muscle cell.
3. Muscle contractions also require
energy in the from of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
4. The energy comes from ATP
produced in the mitochondria.
CONSEQUENCES OF MUSCULO
SKELETAL SYSTEM ON SUPPORT AND
LOCOMATION
 The musculoskeletal consists of bones, joints, muscle,
ligaments and tendons.
The musculoskeletal system can be impaired either by:
a) Diseases or
b) Muscle that do not contract in a coordinated way
Affects
1. Muscle cramps
2. Muscular dystrophy
3. Osteoporosis
4. Arthritis
Muscle cramps
1. A muscle cramps is sudden
contraction of one or more
muscle.
2. A muscle cramps is an
involuntary, forcibly when
contracted muscle that is
not able to relax.
3. When cramps begins, the
spinal cord stimulates the
muscle to keep contracting.
4. Usually affected are the
back of the lower leg or the
calf, the back of thigh
(hamstrings) or the front of
the thigh (the quadriceps).
Muscular dystrophy
Muscular dystrophy is
caused by the progressive
degeneration and weakening
of the skeletal muscle that
control movement.
The body muscle gradually
become weak as they are
replaced by fibrous tissue.
this diseases is caused by
mutated gene in the X
chromosome and mainly
affects boys.
 Osteoporosis
Common bone disorder which causes the bones to
became thinner, more brittle and more porous.
The loss of bone mass normally begins the elderly
women after the age of 30 years and accelerates greatly
after the age of 45 years. It particularly affects women
after menopause, when changes in hormone levels.
During the course of individual’s life, the body needs
phosphate and calcium to build bones.
Osteoporosis can be prevent by taking adequate
amounts of calcium, phosphorus and vitamin D.
Regular exercise can also reduce the likelihood of
bone fractures and help reduce bone minerals loss.
Most people are no aware that they have osteoporosis
until a bone is fractured because there are no
symptoms or early signs of osteoporosis.
Arthritis
A group of skeleton disorders that involve inflammation
of the joint.
The joints becomes swollen, stiff and painful.
One form of arthritis is osteoarthritis.
Osteoarthritis is part of the ageing process caused by the
wear and tear of the cartilage between the bones inside
certain joints.
The ageing process may also result in decreased
production of the synovial fluid in the joints.
The patient usually suffers from a painful and stiff knee
which restricts daily activities such as walking and
climbing.
If treatment fails to relieve that pain, a surgeon can
replace the damage joints with artificial ones made of
plastic or metals.
 The End
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