Structures and Functions of

Vertebrate
(The Frog)
For many practical reason, the
frog as a vertebrate has long
been a favorite representative
specimen for fundamental
laboratory study of structures
and organization of a living
body.
Anatomical Terminologies
Here are the following terms which are
very helpful for a zoology student in
understanding the anatomy of vertebrates.
A. Anatomical Regions
1. Superior – means above or upper region.
2. Inferior – means below or lower regions.
3. Cephalic -(Cranial or Anterior)- refers to the head
region or towards the head the animal.
4. Caudal (Posterior)- refers to the tail region or
towards the tail end of the animal.
5. Dorsal – the back side of the animal.
6. Ventral – the underside of the animal, opposite dorsal.
7. Lateral – refers to the sides of the animal like the left
and right.
8. Medial – refers to the middle or towards to the middle
region.
9. Proximal – means the major point of reference.
10. Distal – means away or far from a referred point.
11. Peripheral – means near the surface of the body or
organ.
12. Central – means near or at the center.
13. Superficial – refers to on or near the outer surface
of the body or organ.
14. Deep – refers to inner or below the surface of the
body or organ
B. Planes – imaginary surfaces dividing the body into
different regions.
1. Median or mid-sagittal plane – the longitudinal
plane passing through the center from head to tail
dividing the body into left and right halves.
2. Sagittal plane – plane parallel to the medial plane.
3. Horizontal (Frontal or Coronal) plane – plane
drawn parallel to the main body axis (dorsal and
ventral surfaces) and at right angle to the median
plane.
4. Transverse plane – plane cutting the body at right
angle to the sagittal plane.
5. Longitudinal plane – plane cutting the body along
its length.
C. Axes – an imaginary line passing through
a center point of the body
1. Longitudinal axis (anteroposterior) - line extending
from head to tail.
2. Sagittal (dorso-ventral) axis – line in the median –
sagittal plane extending from the dorsal to the
ventral surface.
3. Transverse – (medio-lateral) axis – line in the
transverse plane running from side to side
Classification of the Frog
The common species of Frog usually used in
General Zoology laboratory is Rana Vittigara.

It is fed under the following taxonomic groups

based on its exhibited characteristics
A. Phylum Chordata
B. Subphylum Chordata (Craniata)
C. Class Amphibia
D. Order Anura (Salienta)
E. Family Ranidae (True Frog)
F. Genus Rana
 II. External Anatomy
The body of the frog is divided into two different
regions namely:

A. Axial Region
B. Appendicular Region
 A. Axial Region

• The skeleton of the frog consists chiefly of bony and

cartilaginous elements. In vertebrates, the axial
skeleton consists of the skull, vertebral column,
sternum (breast bone) and ribs (which are not present
in amphibians).

• (a) Skull
(a) (i) The brain case or tranium for enclosing the brain;
Skull (ii) The nasal or olfactory capsules containing the organs of
smell;
(iii) The orbits for housing the eyes;
(iv) The orbit or auditory capsules for lodging the ears;
(v) The upper jaw, which is fused with the ventral margin of the
skull;
(vi) The lower jaw, which is movably articulated to the upper
jaw; and
(vii) The hyoid apparatus, supporting the floor of the mouth
cavity.
 A. Axial Region
DORSAL VIEW
 A. Axial Region
VENTRAL VIEW
A. Axial Region
Vertebral Column
Vertebral Column
Vertebral Column
Vertebral Column
Vertebral Column
 B. Appendicular Region

(a) The pectoral or shoulder girdle

(b) The pelvic or hip girdle
(c) The forelimbs
(d) The hind limbs
(a) The pectoral or shoulder
girdle
(b) The pelvic or hip
girdle
(c) The forelimbs
(d) The hind limbs
JOINTS
There are
two main
types of
movable
joints:
(1) Ball and
socket joint
(2) Hinge
joint.
 Characteristics of
Female and Male frogs
FEMALE FROGS
MALE FROGS