CHAPTER 4

MODIFICATION
OF MENDEL INHERITANCE

SEX DETERMINATION AND

SEX-LINKED CHARACTERISTICS
CONTENTS

1. Modification of Mendelian inheritance (incomplete

dominance, lethal alleles, multiple alleles, gene interaction,
gene-environment interaction…)
2. Sex determination
3. Sex-linked characteristics
1. MODIFICATION OF MENDEL
INHERITANCE
DOMINANCE REVISITED
 Complete dominance: heterozygote posesses the same
phenotype as the one of the homozygote
 Incomplete dominance: heterozygote expresses the
intermediate in phenotype between the two homozygotes.
 Codominance: heterozygote is not intermediate between the
phenotypes of the homozygotes; rather, the heterozygote
simultaneously expresses the phenotypes of both
homozygotes
Codominance

Genotype Phenotype Antigen present on red

blood cell
MM M M
MN MN M and N
NN N N
 Dominance
 Is the result of allelic interaction
 Does not change the way in which genes are inherited, it
only influence the way in which genes are expressed
 The classification of dominance depends on the level at
which phenotype is examined.
LETHAL ALLELES
• Recessive lethal allele: cause lethal when appears in a
homologous pair
• Brown fur gene in mouse, cystic fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia,
and achondroplasia in human
• Dominant lethal allele: takes effect directly and
immediately when appears in genotype, only recessive
alleles survive organism
• Gene for Huntington’s disease
• Conditional: cause lethal in some specific
circumstances
• Gene G6PD in favism, disease caused when patient eats
fava bean and suffers hemolytic anemia
• Semilethal (sublethal) allele: cause lethal of only
some genotype or organisms
• Heamophila gene 8,9
• Synthetic lethal alleles cause death when they are
paired, but not if they are not in combination.
MULTIPLE ALLELES
 The locus may have more than 2 types of allele
 The diploid individual still consists of only 2 alleles
 The greater varieties of genotype and phenotype
GENE INTERACTION
 Genes do not express individually in determination of phenotypes
 The types of interaction between effects of genes at different loci
called gene interaction
 The ratios of phenotypes generated from gene interaction are
modified from 9:3:3:1 ratio
 Gene interaction produces novel phenotypes
In peper,
R produces red pigment
r produces no red pigment
C cause decomposition of the green of the chlorophyll
c allows chlorophyll to persist
 Gene interaction with epistasis
 One gene affects the expression of other genes at the different
locus
 The gene that hides other gene is called epistatic gene
 The gene that has the effect is masked is called hypostatic
gene
 The epistatic gene may be dominant or recessive
 Recessive epistasis
B codes for black pigment, recessive allele b codes for brown pigment.
 At a second locus, allele E affect the deposition of the pigment in the
shaft of the hair; allows dark pigment (black or brown) to be deposited,
a recessive allele e prevents the deposition of dark pigment, causing the
hair to be yellow.
 Dominant epistasis
 Pigment produced in the squash, with yellow (Y) dominant over
green (y)
 W the dominant allele that inhibits pigment production, w allows
pigment and results in colored squash.
 Then genotype W_ inhibits pigment production and produces white
squash
INTERACTION BETWEEN SEX AND
HEREDITY
 Sex-influenced and sex-limited characteristics
 Sex influenced characteristics: determined by autosomal
genes, inherited according to Mendel’s principles, but they
are expressed differently in males and females. In this case, a
particular trait is more readily expressed in one sex.
 Ex: beard in goat
 Sex limited characteristic is encoded by autosomal genes
that are expressed in only one sex.
 Ex: precious puberty in human
 Cytoplasmic inheritance: not all
the genetic material of a cell is
found in the nucleus; some
characteristics are encoded by
genes located in the cytoplasm 
these characteristics exhibit
cytoplasmic inheritance.
 Chloroplasts and mitochondria
contain DNA.
 for most organisms, all the
cytoplasm is inherited from the
egg.
 Genetic maternal effect: the genes are inherited from
both parents, but the offspring’s phenotype is determined
not by its own genotype but by the genotype of its
mother.
 Genomic imprinting: the differential expression of
genetic material depending on whether it is inherited
from the male or female parent. In these cases, males and
females do not contribute the same genetic material to
the offspring
INTERACTION BETWEEN GENES AND
ENVIRONMENT
 Environment affect gene expression
Expression of the temperature –sensitive allele, hymalayan, is shown
in rabbit reared at different temperature
 Expression of the continuous characteristics
 exhibita continuous distribution of phenotypes
 genes at many loci interact to produce the phenotypes.
 With two loci, each with two alleles, there are 3p(2) = 9 genotypes
possible.
 The inheritance of continuous characteristics may appear to
be complex, but the alleles at each locus follow Mendel’s
principles and are inherited in the same way as alleles coding
for simple, discontinuous characteristics
2. SEX DETERMINATION
2. Sex determination
PRESENTS IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
THE MECHANISM IN WHICH SEX IS ESTABLISHED
• Chromosomal sex determining system
• Genic sex determining system
• Environmental sex determination
• Genic balanced system
CHROMOSOMAL SEX DETERMINING SYSTEMS
SPECIFIC CHROMOSOMES DETERMINE PARTICULAR SEX

 XX-XO system: found in some insects

 - XX-XY system: in many species
 ZZ-ZW system: found in birds, moths, some fishes…
 Haplodiploidy: found in
some insects in order
Hymenoptera (bees, ants,
wasps…)
GENIC SEX DETERMINING SYSTEM
SEX IS DETERMINED BY SOME SPECIFIC GENES ON SOMATIC (NORMAL)

CHROMOSOMES)

 Note: even in chromosomal sex determining system,

only some genes are responsible to establish sex.
However, these genes are on specific chromosome (sex
chromosome)
 Found in some plants and protozoans

 No difference in the chromosome of male and female –

no sex chromosome
 Gene SRY located on Y chromosome in mammal
determine the characteristics in male individuals
Environmental sex determination

Environment is the important factors in determining sex in

reptiles (snakes, crocodile..)
- Genic balanced system
DROSOPHILIA MELANOGASTER

 Male: X and Y, Female: X and X

chromosome.
 However: sex is mainly determined
by the ratio of genes on X
chromosome and genes on
autosomes called genic balance
system
HUMAN
Have XX and XY sex determination system but in
human, the genes on Y chromosome determine
maleness
The role of sex chromosome:
 X contains gene essential for both sexes, one copy of X is
required for human development
 Male determining gene is on Y chromosome, which contains
the ZFY gene for testis determining factor, and SRY (sex
determining region Y). This SRY protein binds to DNA and
affect the expression of genes for testis formation
 Absence of Y chromosome leads to female development
 Additional copies of X lead to the abnormal development
 Male determing gene in human
 ZFW gene for testis determining factor locate on short arm of
Y chromosome
3. SEX-LINKED
CHARACTERISTICS
 X-linked white eyes in flies
 Y-linked characteristics
 Present only in male

 More than 20 genes determined outside the

pseudoautosomal region to have linked inheritance with
Y chromosome (including the SRY and ZFY)
 Possible traits: hairy ears,