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Name of Course: Psychology Course Code: BBA 3763 Semester: 4 Total Lessons: 11
Name of Course: Psychology Course Code: BBA 3763 Semester: 4 Total Lessons: 11
Defining Psychology
In terms of the study of the soul.
In terms of the study of the mind.
In terms of the study of the consciousness.
In terms of the study of behaviour.
-As the word ‘soul’ was criticized, that soul had no physical existence, it could
not be seen, touched or felt, the Greek philosophers began to translate
“psyche” as mind and psychology was then defined as ‘ a study of mind’.
-The word mind was again criticized as having the same difficulty as in
explaining soul. And the definition as the science of mind had many
complications and was rejected with a search for an appropriate replacement
of the word.
• Structural and Functional Stage(consciousness)
-William Wundt(1832-1920), a German philosopher established the first
psychological laboratory at the university of Leipzig in Germany. He regarded
psychology as the science of consciousness focusing on inner sensations,
feelings, and thoughts.
-Wundt and his followers like Tichener, tried to provide a systematic study of
the mind through the study of its structure . Thus they all are said to be belonging to
the school of structuralism
.
-William James(1842-1910), emerged a school of thought known as
‘functionalism’ and described consciousness as having four main characteristics with
criticism to Wundt’s ideas. He defined psychology as the ‘description and
explanation of state of consciousness as such’. His critiques on structuralism as it
does not reveal anything about what the mind really does or how it goes about doing
it.
-In the years of 19th and 20th centuries, ideas propagated by William James
were strengthened on more functionalists like John Dewey, James
Rowland, J.M. Cattell, R.S. Woodworth etc.
-This definition was also rejected as, it has no clear vision about
subconscious and unconscious mind, no study of the consciousness
about the animals and the introspection method (self examination)
proved as the subjective and unscientific .
• Behavioral Stage(Behavior)
• J.B Watson(1878-1958), the American psychologist, the father of the
behaviorist school, rejected the ideas of structuralism and functionalism and
based his approach to psychology on behavior. He dismissed introspection as a
method to psychology, instead argued on the favor of objective observation and
redefined psychology as the ‘the science of observable behavior’.
• J.B. Watson concluded that the whole idea of consciousness is absurd. It can not
be proved by any scientific test, can not be seen, nor touched, nor exhibited .
• Conceived broadly, psychology seeks to discover the general laws which explain the
behavior of living organisms. It attempts to identify, describe, and classify the several
types of activity of which the animal, human or other, is capable.
-Arthur Gates, 1931 -
Common sense and psychology
Common sense knowledge is the locally developed knowledge
acquired through the experiences of the people in their daily
life.
There are many false notions about psychology and
psychologists. Many people carry the common sense of
psychology. Some common misconceptions people hold about
psychology are;
Psychologists are face readers.
Some others perceive that psychologists can even read mind.
Some people consider psychologists as the ones who deal with
mentally ill people only.
A person feels that psychologists are fortune teller like
astrologers who can estimate character at glance.
Due to such misconceptions, people often feel uncomfortable
to talk with the persons from psychology.
But psychology is the one of the most important field that has
arisen in this world which helps us to get an insight into the
glories of human nature through the careful observation of
human behavior.
Then, what is psychology?
Psychology is the science of behavior and mental or cognitive
processes.
It uses systematized methods to study behaviors of both
human and animals.
It studies why individuals behave in the particular way.
It also focuses on the internal mental processes of an
individual that are supposed to play the role in the behavior
of the individual.
Psychologists are not mind readers. However they can make
inferences about the mental processes accurately by carefully
studying behavior or through use of certain standardized
psychological tests.
Though some psychologists work to treat mentally ill people,
not all the psychologists are concerned about treating
mentally ill people only. There are more than 100 branches
of psychology in which psychologists work.
Defining psychology is not a simple matter because of its
wide scope, broad concern and the philosophical differences
among the practitioners.
Psyche and science combine to form the word psychology.
Today psychology is defined as the science of behavior and
mental processes. Before arriving to this modern definition,
psychology went to a very difficult period.
Many controversies, doubt and confusions dominated the
concept of psychology.
Nature/feature/characteristics of psychology
Psychology is the study of human behavior and mental
process.
The word ‘psychology’ was coined in 1590 by Rudolf Goeckle.
It is derived from two Greek words psyche and Logos which
means the soul and study or science.
Scientific psychology began in 1879 when first laboratory was
established and human mind and behavior was systematically
studied.
Psychology possesses a well organized theory supported by the
relevant psychological laws and principles.
It has various branches of applied psychology like industrial,
legal, clinical and educational psychology.
It believes that every behavior has its roots, causing factors,
influencing or nurturing.
There are different methods to study psychology. Eg, case
study, experiment, scientific observation etc.
It possesses a body of fact for truth, doesn’t believe in
stereotypes or superstition.
It emphasizes on the search for truth by advocating
objectivity, reliability, and validity in the assessment of
behavior.
The methods and techniques in the study of the behavior are
quite scientific and believes in cause and effect relationship.
The results of the study of behavior may be accepted,
modified or altered according to available data and findings.
It enjoys universal applicability in practical life, other bodies
of the knowledge and future researches in its own fields
It makes the trustworthy predictions about the organism in
the light of the studied behavior.
• Gestalt Psychology
- As a reaction against structuralism and functionalism, in Germany it gave
birth to a new school of thought named as Gestalt psychology quite distinct
from behaviorisms.
- Most prominent members of this school were Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Lewin.
- The word Gestalt is a German noun, its nearest English translation is
‘configuration’ or more simply ‘an organized whole’ in contrast to a
collection of parts.
- According to the Gestalt psychology;
An individual perceives the thing as a whole and not as a mere collection of
its elements.
The meaning of sensation or perception is always related to the total
situation.
There lies definitely a sort of organization between the stimulus-response
that helps in forming a new gestalt(an organized whole). For example, when
looking at a tree, what is seen is a tree. It may be that a tree consists color,
brightness and a form.
The human behavior is characterized as an intelligent behavior rather than
a simple stimulus-response mechanism.
An individual perceives the situation as a whole and takes the proper
decision in an intelligent way although quite often all of a sudden.
Gestalt psychology used the term ‘insight’ to describe human behavior and
summarized the behavioral process under the following three steps.
a) Perception of the situation as a whole.
b) Seeing and judging the relationships between various factors involved in
the situation.
c) Taking an immediate decision and behave accordingly.
Contemporary Perspectives in psychology
Psychology as discussed before was defined and looked with different interests
and explanation about human behavior . Starting from Aristotle to modern
definition, no single point of view has emerged as the correct way of viewing
of human behavior and mental processes.
The major perspectives emerged in contemporary psychology
in explaining behavior is Biological, Cognitive, Behavioral, Psychodynamic,
Humanistic, Socio-cultural and Evolutionary.
BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Every human behavior is related to psychological changes within the body.
The working relationship between the body, behavior, and mental processes
is the focus of biological perspective.
The biological perspective describes the role of nerve cells in different
aspects of an individual’s behavior in emotion, reasoning, problem solving,
intelligence, speaking etc. and also study neurotransmitters that influences
normal and abnormal behavior. Most drugs influence our emotions and
behaviors by altering levels of these neurotransmitters in the body.
During recent years, psychologists regarding this perspective
are focusing on the influence of heredity on personality
characteristics and abilities and also are concentrating on
behavior genetics to determine how much genes and
environment influence individual differences.
Karl Lashley especially focused on the continuous activity of
the brain and its interaction with the environment and a
dynamic composite of interacting system. He emphasized
fatigue(extreme tiredness), lower motivation and poorer recall
as the three factors that are important in forgetting.
COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE
The word cognition covers the higher intellectual processes as
perceiving, believing, thinking, remembering, knowing, deciding,
problem solving etc.
The word ‘cogito’ means I think. Cognition is a mental process in
which the information is obtained, processed, transformed, stored,
retrieved, and used. It examines thinking, how we know and
understand words, solve problems, make decisions, combine
information from memory and current experience, use language, and
communicate our thoughts to others.
This new school of contemporary psychology is the result of the wave
of intellectualism demonstrating faith in the higher cognitive abilities
of human beings for his adaptation to his environment and struggle
for perfection.
Cognitive perspective is the newly developed area explaining human
behavior. It studies all about man’s thinking, memory, language,
development, perception, imagery, and other mental processes.
Cognitive psychology presents a system’s viewpoint in explaining
the behavior mechanism. In this system whatever is conveyed
through stimuli in the environment may work as INPUT. The
cognitive functioning of the human mind as PROCESS and the
result of it as OUTPUT or PRODUCT.
The cognitive psychology is gaining popularity day by day.
Edward Tolman, Jean Piaget are the most prominent
contemporary cognitive psychologists have contributed in the field
of learning, thinking and creative functioning, and in the study of
development of cognitive abilities.
Gestalt psychologist working in the field of perception advocated
the study of cognitive processes.
Psychologists George Miller and Jerome Bruner established
the Center for Cognitive studies at Harvard University in 1960,
and Ulrich Neisser published the book ‘Cognitive psychology’ in
1967 that supports the study of cognitive processes.
The complicated nature of cognition can be analyzed in
different ways.
Cognition processes information:
- Information is the raw material for cognition. The information is
obtained from the physical environment through sense organs. The
receptors receive it and then the neutral connections transmit the
information to the particular part of the nervous which is then conveyed
to the effectors giving sense to the information.
Cognition is active:
-Obtained information from the sensory organs is stored and retrieved
through the process of memory and later on, it can be used in the process
of problem solving, thinking and language.
Cognition is useful:
Cognition is useful mentally and physically. It helps us in judgment, and
survival processes. A child’s ability to solve mathematical problems,
plan, face humiliating situation of anxiety, appear from cognitive aspect
of his thinking.
BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
In the early 1900s, Russian psychologist Ivan Pavlov(1849-
1936) was studying digestion in dogs that work influenced the
American psychologist John B. Watson greatly, who then
opined that human behavior can be measured through
observable behavior, and not by the study of mind or
consciousness. Watson developed and applied these principles
to animals which were later expanded for human beings.
Behaviorism as a method of studying the behavior focused its
attention totally on the overt or observable behavior.
Behaviorist is not interested in the feeling of fear because it is
not measurable but he/she pays attention to the changes in
heart rate and blood pressure which are the effects of fear and
can be objectively measured.
The theory of behaviorism as propagated by Watson based on
the finding of Ivan Pavlov, the propagator of the theory of
classical conditioning.
In his classic experiment, Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate
at the sound of a bell by substituting that sound for the sight
and smell of meat and concluded that all behavior is a response
to some stimulus in the environment. Watson tried to apply this
approach in the field of human behavior. He made the
experiment to a 11 month old child Albert.
B.F. Skinner (1904-1990), the greatest contemporary
psychologist used behavior in a very simple way. He thought
behavior changes as a result of its environmental consequences.
Many of his principles were used to cure diseases and change
behavior of animals and human beings in a variety of settings.
PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
This perspective/theory is developed by Sigmund Freud(1856-1939) as a tool to
study abnormal behavior, a treatment procedure to help neurotic disease, and an
‘ism’ to provide knowledge and understanding about the unconsciousness mind.
Freud felt the roots of psychological problems are motives of sexual and
aggressive nature which stay at the unconscious level of the mind. The term
psychodynamic is used because these unconscious motives and conflicts
influence our behavior even though we do not know they exist.
Freud also focused on early childhood and emphasized that early experiences
have major influences on personality development.
Structure of psyche:- Freud further invented three concepts, the Id, Ego and
Super ego for explaining the structure of psyche and human personality and
basis of his behavior.
-The Id is the deepest and most primitive part of the human personality that
consists of the man’s primitive drives towards sexual satisfaction or pleasure
seeking activities and violence or destruction. it knows no reality, follows no
rules and considers only the satisfaction of its needs and drives.
- The ego develops out of the Id and acts as an intermediary between the sets of
forces i.e. instinctual demands of the realities of the external world and ethical
moral demands of the super ego.
- The super igo is the ethical moral aspect of the psyche. It is idealistic and does not
care for realities. Protection is its goal rather than pleasure seeking or destruction.
- All behavior, according to Freud, can be understood in terms of the dynamic
equilibrium between Id, ego and super ego.
The oral stage:-According to Freud, mouth represents the first sex organ for
providing pleasure to the child. The beginning is made with the pleasure received
from the mother’s nipple or the bottle. Thereafter, it is used to derive pleasure by
putting anything candy, stick, his own thumb etc.
The Anal Stage:- At this stage, the interest of the child
shifts from the mouth to the organs of elimination i.e anus or
the urethra. The child derives pleasure by holding back or
letting go of the body’s waste material through anus or urethra.
This stage generally ranges from two to three years.
Genital Stage:- This stage starts from the age of four years
with the shifting of the child’s interest from the eliminating
organs to the genitals. At this stage children come to note the
biological differences between the sexes and derive pleasure by
playing and manipulating the genital organs.
The scientific study of psychology for the first time was started by Wilhelm
Wundt in 1987 at Leipzig university, in Germany.
Psychologists use three strategies to describe, predict and explain behavior
and mental processes. They describe behavior using case studies, surveys
and naturalistic studies. They predict behavior from studies that detect
correlation and seek cause-effect explanation through experiments.
METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Introspection Method
It is the oldest method known for the study of behavior. In the earlier days
of the evolution of the subject psychology, the behavior was studied only
through a kind of self examination or inner observation called introspection.
Raising a problem.
Formation of Hypothesis.
The characteristics regarding nature and working of the clinical method are;
a. Clinical method is applicable to an individual case.
b. The individual has some problems.
c. Both method of diagnosis and treatment are employed in dealing with
these problems.
d. Clinical approach is an art as well as a science and technology which
means that everybody cannot treat every patient.
e. The basic element in this method of psychological investigation are the
diagnosis and treatment of the problem or mental illness of an individual.
Method of Diagnosis
Adequate physical check-up
Making out the case history
The clinical interview
Direct observation of the behavior
Using tests and measuring devices
Method of Treatment
Diagnosis is to be followed by treatment in order to serve the welfare of the
individual. In case of the behavioral problem treatment, efforts are to be
made to bring about a change in the behavior of the individual in order to
get him/her adjusted to own environment and restore him/her to own
normal mental health.
Modifying the environment forces
i) The client may be physically removed from one situation and placed in
another.
ii) The attitude of parents, teachers and others toward the client may be
changed.
iii) More adequate recreational facilities, living conditions, work placement
and working conditions may be provided.
Modifying the client’s attitude
i) Guidance and counseling
ii) Psychoanalysis
iii) Techniques like auto-suggestion, hypnosis, psychodrama and role playing
iv) Therapies like psychotherapy, group therapy, play therapy, occupation
therapy, attitude therapy.
Differential Method
This method is also known as Field Survey method as the investigator has
to go to the field to investigate.