Environmental Engineering

Module - III
Conservancy and water carriage systems, sewage and storm water estimation,
type of concentration, storm water over flows combined flow, characteristics of
sewage, cycles of decay, decomposition of sewage, examination of sewage, B.O.D.
and C.O.D. equations. Design of sewers, shapes and materials, sewer
appurtenances manhole, inverted siphon, catch basins, flushing tanks, ejectors,
pumps and pump houses, house drainage, components requirements, sanitary
fittings, traps, one pipe and two pipe systems of plumbing, ultimate disposal of
sewage, sewage farming, dilution.

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Environmental Engineering
 Design of sewers

A sewer is piped system to transport wastewater (and sometimes storm water) from
the source (household, industry , runoff ) to a treatment facility.

The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, means finding out their sections and
gradients ,is generally carried out on the same lines as that of the water supply pipes

However there are two major differences between characteristics of flows in sewers
and water supply pipes.

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Environmental Engineering
 Classification of sewers

Sanitarary sewer- carries only sanitarary and domestic sewer

Separate sewer – carries only disposal water
Combined sewer – carries by weather flow plus storm water
Partially combined sewer – carries dry weather flow plus a portion of WWF
House sewer- carries sewage from house or building to street or public sewers
Lateral sewer-collect sewage directly from houses sewer

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Environmental Engineering
 Design principle

Large network of underground pipes, mostly in urban areas.

Collection of Black water, brown water, grey water and stromwater.
The system contains three types of sewer lines: 1)Main line (primary): the centre of
the system, all other lines empty into it 2)Branch lines (secondary): extend from the
main
Wastewater is transported to a centralised treatment facility by gravity.
 Depending on topography , sewer pumping stations are necessary.
 It must be designed to maintain “ self cleansing” velocity that no particle
accumulate.

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Environmental Engineering
Hydraulic sewer

1) Chezy’s Formula v = c(Ri)^(1/2) Where,

v= is the mean velocity(m/s)
c= is the chezy coefficient (m^1/2)
R= is the hydraulic radius (- water depth ) (m)
I= is the bottom slope(m/m)

 Constant (c) is very complex. Depends on size , shape and smoother roughness
of the channel the mean depth etc.

 C can be calculated by using Bazin’s formula

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Environmental Engineering
 Bazin’s formula

C =157.6/[1.8+(k/R^1/2)]
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
Where, K=Bazin’s constant R= hydraulic radius
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
water surface

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Environmental Engineering
 Manning formula

V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
Where of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
 V= Velocity of flow1.486(ft/m)^1/3
(m/s)  N= manning coefficient 
 k= conversion factor
Rh= of hydraulic
1.486(ft/m)^1/3
radius(m)  S= slope of the
 N= manning coefficient
water surface
 Rh= hydraulic radius(m)
 S= slope of the water surface

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Environmental Engineering
 Minimum Velocity

The flow velocity in the sewers should be such that the suspended materials in sewage
do not get silted up Vi.e.,
= K/NtheR^2/3.S^1/2
velocity should
Wherebe such as to cause automatic self
V= Velocity
cleansing effect. of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
 The generation of such
Rh= ahydraulic
minimum self cleansing
radius(m) velocity
 S= slope in the sewer at least once
of the
a day is important because if certain deposition takes place and is not removed, it will
water surface
obstruct free flow ,causing further deposition and finally leading to the complete
blocking of sewer.

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Environmental Engineering
 Self clearing velocity

To calculate minimum velocity of flow following formula is used.

V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity

V= [(8k/f)(es-e)/e.g.ds]^(1/2)
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
where, 1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
V=minimum velocity of Rh= hydraulic
flow in m/s. radius(m)  S= slope of the
water surface
K= size of solids in sewage varying between 0.06mm
F= Darcy’s coefficient of friction (normally 0.03)
es= specific gravity of solid material flowing in sewage , varies between 1.2 to 2.65
e= specific gravity of liquid in sewage (genrally1)
g= gravitational acceleration cont.
ds= dia of solid particles in mm
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Environmental Engineering
 Effects of flow variation on velocity in a sewer

 Due to variation in discharge , the depth of flow varies , and hence the hydraulic
mean depth (r) varies.
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
 Due to the charge in the hydraulic mean depth , the flow velocity gets affected from
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
time to time.
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
water surface
 It is necessary to check the sewer for maintaining a minimum velocity of about
0.45m/s at the time of minimum flow (assumed to be 1/3 average flow)

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Environmental Engineering
 Effects of flow variation on velocity in a sewer

The designer should also ensure that velocity of 0.9 m/s is developed at the time of
maximum flow and preferably during the average flow periods also.
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
 Moreover, can should betaken to see that at the time of maximum flow , the
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
velocity generated does not exceed the sourcing value.
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
water surface

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Environmental Engineering
 Forms of sewer

1. Circular sewer
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
2. Non circular sewers
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
3. Rectangular shape section
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
water surface
4. Semi-circular shaped sewer

5. U-shaped section sewer

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Environmental Engineering
 Significance of circular sewer

1. Circular section has least perimeter and maximum R for given area so it is most
efficient .
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
2. It requires minimum quantity of material , making it economical too.
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
3. Having uniform curvature , it prevents the possibility of deposition.
water surface
4. They are easily manufactured.

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Environmental Engineering
 Testing of sewer

1. The testing of sewer is necessary as any leakage, improper joints, straightness or

obstruction of sewer may occur during laying of sewers.
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
2. The defect may be removed or required after detection .
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
3. So there are various tests by which these defect may be detected.
water surface
4. Water test (Test area)
5. Air test (Test area)
6. Smoke test (Test area)
7. test for obstruction (Test area)

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Environmental Engineering
 Effects of flow variation on velocity in a sewer

The designer should also ensure that velocity of 0.9 m/s is developed at the time of
maximum flow and preferably during the average flow periods also.
V = K/N R^2/3.S^1/2 Where  V= Velocity
of flow (m/s)  k= conversion factor of
 Moreover, can should betaken to see that at the time of maximum flow , the
1.486(ft/m)^1/3  N= manning coefficient 
velocity generated does not exceed the sourcing value.
Rh= hydraulic radius(m)  S= slope of the
water surface

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer

Brick

 Used particularly for large diameter sewers

 Advantage- – Can be constructed to any required shape and size
 Disadvantage- – higher cost – Slow work progress – Larger space requirement
 Cement concrete or stone invert
 To prevent ground water infiltration: – plaster outside surface with mortar using
sulphate resistant cement – inside surface mortar + high alumina cement (IS 6452) or
polyurea coating.

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer

Concrete

• Advantages – Relative ease with which required strength may be provided – Wide
range of pipe sizes – Rapid trench backfill

• Disadvantages – crown corrosion by sulphide gas – mid depth water line corrosion
by sulphate – outside deterioration by sulphate from soil water

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer
Precast concrete

• Commonly used for branch and main sewers

• Two types – Non-pressure pipes
• Used for gravity flow (sewers running partially full)
• Plain (I.D. 80mm-450mm; thickness: 25mm-35mm) (NP1)
• Reinforced (I.D. 80mm-2600mm; thickness: 25mm-215mm) (NP2, NP3 & NP4) –
Pressure pipes (P1, P2 & P3)
• Used for force mains, submerged outfalls, inverted siphons and for gravity sewers
where absolute water-tight joints are required.
• Reinforced (I.D. 80mm-1200mm; thickness: 25mm-120mm)
• Length : 2-3m
• These pipes have plain ends or spigot and socket ends.
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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer

Cast-in-situ Reinforced Concrete

• Constructed where they are more economical

•When non-standard sections are required

• When a special shape is required

•When the headroom and working space are

limited.

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer Stoneware or Vitrified Clay
Normally available in lengths of 90 cm
Skilled labour required for caulking the joints with yarn
soaked in cement mortar and packing in the spigot and
socket joints
Classes – AA: 100% hydraulic testing of pipes to be
carried out in manufacturing stage – A: 5% of the pipes to
be tested by following IS 651
Resistant to most acids and to erosion due to grit and
high velocities
 A minimum crushing strength of 1,600 kg/m is adopted
for all sizes
Special bedding or concrete cradling required to improve
field supportive strength

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer Asbestos Cement
• Usually used in sizes ranging from 80 mm to 1000 mm in
diameter
• Advantages – Non corrosiveness to most natural soil conditions, –
freedom from electrolytic corrosion, – good flow characteristics, –
light weight, – ease in cutting, drilling, threading and fitting with
specials, – allowance of greater deflection up to 12 degrees with
mechanical joints, – ease of handling, – tight joints and – quick
laying and backfilling are to be considered

• Disadvantages – subject to corrosion by acids, highly septic

sewage and by highly acidic or high sulphate soils – Cannot stand
high super imposed loads and may be broken easily

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer : Cast Iron
• Available in diameters from 80 mm to 1050 mm and are covered
with protective coatings

• supplied in 3.66 m and 5.5 m lengths

• A variety of joints are available including socket, spigot, and flanged

joints.

• Classified as LA, A and B according to their thickness. Class LA

pipes have been taken as the basis for evolving the series of pipes

. • Application: Cast iron pipes with a variety of jointing methods are

used for pressure sewers, sewers above ground surface, submerged
outfalls, piping in sewage treatment plants and occasionally on gravity
sewers where absolutely water-tight joints are essential or where
special considerations require their use.

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer

• Advantage: long laying lengths with tight joints, ability when properly designed
to withstand relatively high internal pressure and external loads and corrosion
resistance in most natural soils.

• Disadvantage: – corrosion by acids or highly septic sewage and acidic soils –

the amount of deflection allowed should not normally exceed 2.5 degrees for
lead caulked joints. • Inside coating shall be by Cement mortar and outer coating
shall be coal tar

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer: Steel
Pressure sewer mains, under water river crossings, bridge crossings,
necessary connections for pumping stations, self- supporting spans, railway
crossing and penstocks are some of the situations where steel pipes are
preferred
• Advantages – withstand internal pressure, impact load and vibrations much
better than CI pipe. – more ductile and withstand water hammer better.
• Disadvantage – cannot withstand high external load – main is likely to collapse
when it is subjected to negative pressure – susceptible to various types of
corrosion
• Inside coating by high alumina cement mortar or polyurea and outside by
epoxy.
• Steel pipes shall conform to IS 3589. Electrically welded steel pipes of 200 mm
to 2,000 mm diameter should conform to IS 5822.
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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer
Made by a metallurgical process, which involves the addition of
magnesium into molten iron of low sulphur content.
• The ductile iron pipes are usually provided with cement mortar
lining at the factory by centrifugal process to ensure a uniform
thickness throughout its length
• available in the range of 80 mm to 1000 mm diameter, in lengths of
5.5 to 6 m
• Advantages – excellent properties of machinability, – impact
resistance, – high wear and tear resistance, – high tensile strength
and ductility and – corrosion resistance. – strong, both inner and outer
surfaces are smooth, – These pipes are approximately 30 % lighter
than conventional cast iron pipes

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer: UPVC Pipe (Unplasticized polyvinylchloride)

Advantages – resistance to corrosion, – light weight for

transportation, – toughness, rigidity, – economical in laying,
jointing, and maintenance and – easy to fabricate

• IS 15328 deals with non-pressure unplasticized

polyvinylchloride (PVC) for use in underground sewerage
system. IS 9271 deals with the unplasticized polyvinyl chloride
(UPVC) single wall corrugated pipes for drainage.

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer : High Density Polyethylene 

• Advantages – Offer smooth interior surfaces and –

relatively higher resistance to corrosion – they are available
in solid wall – When laid in straight gradients without humps
or depressions, they can easily offer longer life cycle

• Joints are usually fusion welded or flange jointed

depending on straight runs or fittings

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Environmental Engineering
Materials of Sewer
Sewer material and corresponding standard specification Material Standard
specification Code

Brick (Inside plaster with mortar using high alumina cement ) IS 6452

Concrete Pre-cast concrete (Non-Pressure pipes) IS 458

Cast in-situ reinforced concrete (Concrete ) IS 456

Stoneware or vitrified clay (hydraulic testing) IS 651

Asbestos cement IS 6908

Cast Iron IS 1536 (spun pipe) and IS 1537 (vertically cast pipe)

Steel IS 3589 DI pipes IS 8329 (centrifugally cast DI pipes);

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