Measurement of Resistance

Classification of resistance

1.Low resistance
All resistances of the order of 1 and under may be classified
as low resistance (R<1Ω).
2.Medium resistance
This class includes resistances from 1 upwards to about
0.1M or 100k (1Ω<R<100kΩ).

3.High resistance
Resistances of the order of 100k and upwards are classified
as high resistances. (R>100kΩ).
 Measurement of Resistance
Method of measurement of medium resistance
The different methods used for measurement of medium
resistances are
Ammeter-Voltmeter method
Substitution method
Wheatstone bridge method
Ohmmeter method
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Ammeter-voltmeter method
This method is very popular since the instruments required for this test are
usually available in the laboratory.
Va Va
I I IR
A A
IV
V V VR R V V R

In both cases, if the readings of ammeter and voltmeter are taken, then the
measured value of resistance is given by

Voltmeter reading V
Rm  
Ammeter reading I
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Ammeter-voltmeter method Va
I
A
Case 1: If the ammeter measures the true value of the
current through the resistance but the voltmeter V V VR R
does not measure the true voltage across the
resistance.
The voltmeter indicates the sum of the voltages across the ammeter and the measured
resistance.
Let, Ra is the resistance of the ammeter,  voltage across the ammeter, Va= IRa
Now the measured value of resistance,
V VR  Va IR  IRa
Rm1     R  Ra
I I I
True value of resistance, R = Rm1 – Ra [ Rm1>Ra if Ra=0 then R=Rm1]
Rm1  R Ra
Relative error, r  
R R
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Ammeter-voltmeter method
Va
Case 2: If the voltmeter measures the true value of the I A
IR
voltage but the ammeter measures the sum of IV
current through the resistance and the voltmeter. V V R
Let, Rv is the resistance of the ammeter,
 Current through the voltmeter, Iv= V/Rv
V V V
Measured value of Rm 2    
I I R  I v V / R  V / Rv 1 
resistance,
Rm 2 Rv  1 
True value of resistance, R  
 Rm 2  
Rv  Rm 2  1  Rm 2 Rv 
If Rv>>Rm2 then Rm2/Rv
is very small So, Rm2 <R

at the error in measurement would be small

Rm 2 Rv
ance under measurement
Relative error, is very small as Rm 2 
Rm 2  R Rv  Rm 2 
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Substitution method R is the unknown resistance

S S is a standard variable resistance

2
0.5A A is an ammeter, and
A
r r is a regulating resistance
Switch 1
R
SW at 1: The ‘r’ is adjusted till the
ammeter pointer is at a chosen
scale mark.

SW at ‘2’: The value of ‘S’ is varied

S
2
till the same deflection  as was 0.5A
obtained with ‘R’ in the circuit  is A
obtained. The settings of the dial of r Switch 1
‘S’ are read. R
This is a more accurate method than the
Ammeter-voltmeter method
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Wheatstone Bridge

Main features
Wheatstone bridge is an important device used in the measurement
of medium resistance.
]It is still an accurate and reliable instrument and is extensively used
in industry.
It has been in use longer than almost any electrical measuring
instrument.
It is an instrument for making comparison measurements and
operates upon a null indication principle.

The indication of Wheatstone bridge is independent of the

calibration of the null indicating instrument or any of its
characteristics. So, it has very high degree of accuracy.
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
It has four resistive arms, consisting of resistances
Wheatstone Bridge P,Q,R, and S together with a source of emf (a battery)
b and a null detector, usually a galvanometer.
P Q
The current in G depends on the potential between c and d.
I1 I3
a G c The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the
Galvanometer or when the potential difference across the
I2 I4 Galvanometer is zero.
R S
For balanced conditions, I1 P  I 2 R
d
E For G current to be Zero, the following conditions exist
+  E E
I1  I 3  I2  I4 
PQ SR
Combining these equations and,
P R
 Where R is unknown resistance, S is called the
PQ R S
‘standard arm’ of the bridge and P and Q are called
P the ‘ratio arms’
RS
Q
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Application of Thévenin’s theorem to Wheatstone Bridge
b P
R a
P Q
I2 I1
I1 I3 d b
a G c Rb
I2 I4 I3
I4
R S c
S Q

d
E
RTH d
+  ETH
Ig 
+ RTH  Rg
ETH G Rg

RS PQ
b RTH  
RS PQ
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Modified Wheatstone Bridge
RL RL R30 R20

b R30 R20 R10

R2 Rx
R10 b
R2 R a Rb R2 Rx
Rx Ra b Rb a c
a G c a c
G
G R1 R3
R1 R3 R1 R3

d
d
d
E E E
+  +  + 

Ra Rb Rb RL Ra RL
R10  , R20  , and R30 
Ra  Rb  RL Ra  Rb  RL Ra  Rb  RL

R2  R30 Rx  R20 ( R2  R30 ) R3

For balance,   Rx   R 20
R1 R3 R1
 Measurement of Medium Resistance
Defects of Wheatstone Bridge
 The actual value of the resistances P, Q and S are different from the mark
value.
 Insufficient sensitivity of the galvanometer.
 Contact resistances of the arms comes errors.
2
 Resistance changes due to the heat produce by the I R losses.

Limitation of Wheatstone Bridge

 The Wheatstone bridge can be measured high resistance by increasing applied
emf, but in this case has to be taken to avoid overheating of any arm of the
bridge. Inaccuracy may also be introduced on account of leakage over
insulation of the bridge arms.
 During measurement of lower resistance, the error caused by leads may be
corrected fairly well, but contact resistance presents a source of uncertainty
that is difficult to overcome.
Measurement of Low Resistance

• Ammeter voltmeter method

• Kelvin Double bridge method
• Potentiometer method
• Shunt ohmmeter method
 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin Bridge method When n, r is added to R.
b
When m, r is added to S.
Q If G is connected to a point ‘d’, in such a
P
G way that the
a c
R S For balance condition
P
m d n R  r1  (S  r2 )    ( 2)
Q
r1 r2
r r1 P P Q
  r1  r and  r2  r
r1  r2 P  Q PQ PQ
E
+  Now from equation (2)
 P  P  Q   P
R   r   S   r  R S
 PQ Q  PQ  Q
 Measurement of Low Resistance
Kelvin double Bridge method
b P  ( p  q )r 
Now, Eab  Eac and, Eac  I  R  S  
Q PQ  p  q  r 
P
G  p  ( p  q)r    pr 
and Eamd  I R   p  q  r   I  R  
a
R d q
c
 p  q    p  q  r 
p S
I I
m n For zero galvanometer deflection, Eab = Eamd
Ry
P  ( p  q)r   pr 
I R  S    I R  
PQ  pqr  p  q  r 
Rb E
+ 
P qr P p
 R  S    
Q p  q  r Q q 
P
Now, if P/Q = p/q then it becomes R  Q  S
Measurement of High Resistance

• Loss of charge method

• Direct deflection method
• Mega ohm bridge method
• Megger
 Golding: page 316
Loss of charge method
Insulation resistance should be connected in
parallel with a capacitor and electrostatic voltmeter

dQ dV
i C But i =V/R then
dt dt
V dV V dV
 C  C 0
R dt R dt

t
log e v  log e V 
RC

Insulation Resistance :
v
0.4343t
R
C log V
o t
10 v
 Sawhney: page 544
Megohm Bridge method
 A high resistance
 Guard terminal to insulator

P Q

A
R= PS/Q
R
B
 Sawhney: page 550
Localization of Cable faults
Ground fault: The insulation of the cable may breakdown causing a flow of current
from core of the cable to the lead sheath or the earth. This is called Ground
fault.
Short circuit fault: If the insulation between two conductors is faulty, a current
flows between them. This is called Short circuit Fault.
The advantages of these tests is that their set-up is such that the resistance is
connected in the battery circuit and therefore doest not effect the result
Bridge sensitivity:
The bridge sensitivity of a Wheatstone 　 is define as the ratio of
deflection in galvanometer to per unit fractional change in the
unknown resistance.

Bridge resistance,

SB 
R
R
Voltage sensitivity:
Voltage sensitivity is define as the ratio of deflection in
galvanometer and emf across the galvanometer, i.e

Voltage sensitivity,

SV 
e
Bridge sensitivity for a Wheatstone bridge having the equal arms:
b
Resistance R is changed to R+ ΔR to create unbalance
Q
P
I1 I3 and emf e will appear across the G branch.
G
a c
EP E ( R  R )
I2 I4 Eab  I1 P  , Ead  I 2 ( R  R ) 
R
S
PQ R  R  S
d Voltage difference between points d and b is :
 R  ΔR P 
e  Ead  Eab  E   
E  R  ΔR  S P  R 

But,
ESR ESR Deflection of galvanometer is :
P R eE    SV e  S v
ESR

PQ R S ( R  S )  R ( R  S ) ( R  S ) 2
2
(R  S )2

Bridge sensitivity,
For, P  Q  R  S
 S ESR Sv E
SB   v 
R (R  S )2 P Q
 2 Sv E
R
Q P SB 
4
Problem: A Kelvin bridge has the following
specification- standard resistance=100.03Ω, outer
ratio arms 100.24Ω and 200Ω, inner ratio arms
100.31Ω and 200Ω. Resistance of link connecting
the standard and unknown resistance is 700μΩ.
Calculate the unknown resistance.
>>
P qr P p
R S   
Q p  q  r Q q 
Problem: A length of cable is tested for insulation
resistance by the loss of charge method. An
electrostatic voltmeter of infinite resistance is
connected between the cable conduct and earth
forming there with a joint capacitance of 600pF. It is
observed that after charging the voltage falls from
250V to 92V in 1 minute. Calculate the insulation
resistance of the cable.

Insulation Resistance :
>>
0.4343t
R
C log10 V
v