z

Definition of Learning
z

“Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as
the result of experience.” – Henry P. Smith (1962)
“Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as
a result of reinforced practice.” – Kimble (1961)
“Learning is an episode in which a motivated individual attempts to adapt his behavior so as to
succeed in a situation which he perceives as requiring action to attain a goal.” – Pressey, Robinson
and Horrocks (1967)
“The term learning covers every modification in behavior to meet environmental
requirements” – Gardner Murphy (1968)

• The concept of learning is not only confined to school but it is related to daily life where one
can learn in every situation that demands modification of behavior.10
• Learning provides a key to structure of our personality and behavior. Experience direct and
indirect is found to play a dominant role in molding and shaping the behavior of an individual
from very beginning.
 z
“The acquisition of habits, knowledge and attitudes. It involves new ways of doing
things, and it operates in an individuals’ attempts to overcome obstacles or to adjust to
new situations. It represents progressive changes in behavior. It enables him to satisfy
interests to attain goals.” - Crow and Crow (1973)

Yoakum & Simpson have stated the following general characteristics of learning:
• Learning is a continuous modification of behavior which continues throughout life.
• Learning is pervasive it reaches into all aspects of human life.
• Learning involves the whole person, socially, emotionally & intellectually.
• Learning is often a change in the organization of behavior.
• Learning is development, time is one of its dimensions.
• Learning is responsive to incentives in most cases positive incentives such as rewards
are most effective than negative incentives such as punishments .
• Learning is always concerned with goals, these goals can be expressed in terms of
observable behavior.
• Learning is a process.
• It involves
z all those
experiences and training of an
individual which helps to change
his behavior.
• Learning prepares the
individual which helps to change
his behavior.
• Learning prepares the Nature of Learning
individual to adjust and adopt
in the situations.
• All the learning is purposeful
and goal-oriented.
• Learning is universal and
continuous.
• It is a continuous and never-
ending process that goes from
womb to tomb.
 z
b.) Actual learning phase:
learning situation and
interaction while
learning.

Process of Learning
a.) Preparatory phase:
a motive or a drive, a
goal, and a block or
barrier to the
achievement of the goal.
 z
Motive
- dynamic force that
compel individual to act
- initiates a learner to
learn what is required to
fulfil their demands or
needs.
Goal A block to the attainment
- set a goal for achieving of the goal
our needs. - if block obstruct the
- necessary in the process individual to reach a goal
of learning. then the individual will try
to change the behavior.

Learning situation Interaction while learning

- provides opportunity for - a process which enables
learning. us to respond to
- provides quality, stimulation and get
speed and effectiveness feedback so that we could
for a learner to learn. progress in the path of
learning.
 z

Types of Learning

a.) Depending on the way of acquiring

knowledge,
b.) Depending on the number of individuals,
and
c.) Depending on the types of activity involved
  Formal learning: learning objectives in
z an organized and structured form and
hence it is always intentional. The
objective emphasizes to gain
knowledge, skills and/or competencies.

a.) Depending on the way of  Informal learning: happens through

experiences like talking, observing,
acquiring knowledge training etc. This learning through
experiences may happen at any place at
any time and hence incidental.

 Non-formal learning: intentional which

states the objectives and could be in
an organized form. It is flexible and
includes intermediate concepts of
formal and informal learning.
 z

b.) Depending on the way of

number of individuals

 Individual Learning: self-learning involves

individualized training and instruction.

 Group Learning: co-operative learning involves group of

people either with similar or different age, intellectual
ability or competencies form together to achieve the
objectives of learning. It requires trainer to facilitate
learning in a way to make progress in learning.
 c.) Depending
z on the types of activity involved
 Motor learning: involve with motor skills, in our day to-day life which an individual has to
learn them in order to maintain the regular life. Acquiring skills to perform all our
activities related to muscular co–ordination in an efficient way.

 Verbal learning: involves the use of words, language we speak and write and the
communication devices we use.

 Discrimination learning: involves the act to differentiate between stimuli and

showing an appropriate response to the stimuli.
 Cognition learning: higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning,
intelligence, generalization etc. It initiates the processes called abstraction and
generalization which enhances the ability of recognizing and identifying things.
 Sensory learning: concerned with perception of things to be learned by primary
sensory organs.
 z

Learning Curve
- A graphical representation of
the increase of learning (vertical
axis) with experience or activity
(horizontal axis).

• Exponential growth
• Exponential rise or
fall to a limit
• S-curve
 z

Exponential growth
- the proficiency can increase without limit
- best known example is Moore’s law
 z

Exponential rise or fall to a - sharpest during the initial

limit attempts, gradually levels
- increase in skill or retention of out
information - subject’s skill doesn’t improve
much with each repetition
- less new knowledge is gained
over time
 z

S-curve
- improvement of proficiency starts slowly, then increase rapidly, and
finally levels off.
 z

b.) Teacher’s enthusiasm in

Factors influencingclassroom learning
c.) Environment and other
learning factors
a.) Psychological individual d.) Methodology of Instructions
differences of learners
 z

a.) Psychological individual differences of learners

- influence the quality and quantity
of learning. It deals with the
intelligence and abilities
associated with personality of
learner, learning styles and needs
and interests of learner. The
personality of learner includes
their aptitude, attitude,
motivation, mental health and
aspiration to achieve their goals of
life.
 z
1. Mental Health 2. Motivation and Interest

(i) Motives energise behaviour

(ii) Motives select behaviour
(iii) Motives direct behaviour
 z
3. Success, Praise and Blame 4. Rewards and Punishment
 z

b.) Teacher’s enthusiasm in classroom learning

- important role of a teacher in
the teaching – learning process as
a facilitator of learning. By
adopting dynamic and
efficient teaching techniques and
strategies, a teacher could
explore the talents of the
learner and could progress quality
of teaching–learning process.
z

c.) Environment and other factors

- the external environmental
factors such as surroundings,
cultural and social
demands such as relationship with
parents, teachers and peer,
information factors such
as media influence the learner.
 z
1. Working Conditions 2. Organisational set-up
 z

d.) Methodology of Instructions

1. Presentation and Organisation 2. Learning by Doing
of Material
 z
3. Special Methods of Learning 4. Time Testing
 z Laws of Learning
- Professor of American Psychology
- Disciple of William James who developed a
series of laws about trial and error
learning.
- Thorndike's theories are considered as
the precursors of American behaviorism.

Edward Lee Thorndike

(1874-1949)
z

Primary Laws

● Law of effect
● Law of exercise
● Law of readiness
 z

Law of effect
- Learning is strengthened when
accompanied by a pleasant or
satisfying feeling.
- Learning is weakened when
associated with an unpleasant
feeling
- Learning takes places properly
when it results in satisfaction and
the learner derives pleasure out of
it.
 z

Law of exercise
-This principle states that the S-R
connection is strengthened by use and
weakened with disuse.
- It has two parts: law of use and law of
disuse.
- Things most often repeated are best
remembered.
- Students do not learn complex tasks in
a single session.
- The instructor must repeat important
items of subject matter at reasonable
intervals.
 z

Law of readiness
- This principle states that
motivation is needed to develop an
association or display changed
behavior.
- Individuals learn best when they
are physically, mentally, and
emotionally ready to learn, and
they do not learn well if they see
no reason for learning.
 z

Additional Laws (Principles)

Law of Primacy
- things learned first create a
strong impression.
- what is taught must be right
the first time.
Law of Recency
- things most recently learned
are best remembered.
- frequent review and
summarization help fix in the
mind the material covered.
Law of Intensity
- the more intense the
material taught, the more
likely it will be retained.
- a student will learn more
from the real thing than from
a substitute.

Law of Freedom
- things freely learned are best learned.
- the greater the freedom enjoyed by the students
in the class, the greater the intellectual and moral
advancement enjoyed by them.
 z

Law of Multiple Response Law of Analogy and

- Trial and error
Subordinat Assimilation
- The individual make use of old
e Laws experiences or acquisitions while
learning a new situation.
of
Law of Set Attitude Law of Associative
- Learner performs the task well if he as Learning
his attitude set in the task. Shifting
- A reaction to a certain stimulus might
shift to a different one.
z

Pre-potency of Elements
• The learner reacts selectively to the
important in the situation and
neglects the other features or
elements which may be irrelevant.
 z

Conditions
Affecting Learning
There are three categories of conditions which affect learning namely:
 The Conditions Related to the Content
 The Teacher
 The Learner
 z

do we need to study the Conditions and Factors of

Affecting Learnings

- To solve the problems related to LEARNINGS

- To improve the skill of teaching

 z
Psychological Factor

Readiness/Prepared Intelligence

Interest
 z

Attitude Feeling

Motivation
 Intrinsic Motivation – the motivation to engage In a behavior arises from within the individual
because it is intrinsically rewarding
 Extrinsic Motivation – refers to our tendency to perform activities for known external rewards,
whether there are tangible ( perceptible by touch ) or psychological (mental and emotional state
of a person ) in nature.
 z

Intellectual Factor
- The phrase refers to a person's mental state. In general, academic
success is highly tied to intelligence level. Students with low intellect
frequently struggle to master curriculum. Because of particular
intellectual limitations, some students may not learn.
 z

Learning Factors

- Factors such as a lack of mastery of what has been taught, incorrect

techniques of work or study, and a restricted experimental background can
all have an impact on a student's learning process. If the school moves too
quickly and does not regularly check to see if the student is grasping what
is being taught, the student accumulates a variety of deficits that impede
good advancement.
 z

Physical Factors
- Health, physical development,
nutrition, visual and bodily deformities,
and glandular abnormalities are all
included in this category. It is well
acknowledged that poor health impairs
physical and motor development, and
that hunger impairs learning and
physical growth.
M z
e
n - Attitudes are classified as mental variables since they are composed of organic
t and kinesthetic aspects. Attitudes are of a more or less distinct type. Attitudes
are also vital in the formation of personality. Attitudes have a stimulating
a influence on the rate of learning and instruction, as well as on academic
l advancement.

F
a
c
t
o
r
s
 z

Emotional and Social Factors

- Personal variables like instincts and emotions, as well as societal factors
like collaboration and rivalry, are intimately tied to a complex psychology of
motivation. It is a well-known truth that the individual's reactions to many
types of stimuli are determined by a wide range of inclinations.
 z Teacher’s Personality
- The instructor, as an individual personality, plays an essential role in the
learning environment, as well as the learner's mistakes and successes.
Personality, strictly speaking, is made up of all the things that make the
individual what he is, the complex pattern of qualities that separates him
from others of his type. Person's personality is made up of his physical
appearance, mental capacity, emotional conduct, and attitudes toward
others. Effective teaching and learning are the outcome of the teacher's
integrated personality.
 z

Environmental Factor
- Environmental factors include the physical circumstances required
for learning. The environment in which learning takes place is one of
the aspects that influence its efficiency. Classrooms, textbooks,
equipment, school supplies, and other educational resources are all
included.
 z

 Subjective Principles
Three areas of Learning
 Self-concept
Principles:
 Past experience
 Subjective
z

Principles
- concerned with “what” the leaner brings to the learning
situation.

 Self-concept
- new experience are learned more effectively if they
agree with or enhance our self-concept.

 Self-concept
- a person should be aware of the influence of his
limited and selective personal experience and to maintain
an open and flexible attitude.
Intelligence Emotion
z
- confidence, - When we are
creativity, leadership enthusiastic, we tend
and desire to achieve to learn better. Fearful
could be help learning situations impair
to be effective. learning ability. Mild
stress or anxiety may
help learning by making
the learning more alert.

Motivation
- when a leaner is really
interested and involved
he will learn better.
 z

Special Learning Techniques – use to increase learning

efficiency that includes:
• Massed & distributed learning
• Feedback
• Overlearning.
 z

Techniques of  Planning the sequence of

Management 
learning
Learning by feedback
of Learning  Integrative learning
 Experiential approach to
learning
 z

 Planning the sequence of learning

- a large amount of information to be learned (complex
directions), it is best to distribute the total learning time
into separate periods.
Distributed practice: learning section by section is a
better technique than trying to give all the things
to be learned at the same time.
Massed practice: learning to solve a problem or
learning an entire sequence at one time with no rest
or interruptions.
 z

 Learning by feedback
- persons learn better when
they are informed as to the
correctness or incorrectness
of their responses. It is called
feedback.
 Integrative
z
learning
- a learning theory describing a movement toward integrated
lessons helping students make connections across curricula.
- learning by wholes tends to be better than learning by parts.
 z

 Experiential approach to
learning
- process of making meaning
from direct experience.
“learning from experience”.
- focuses on the learning
process for the individual.
z

5 Factors used in Experiential

 Learning Education
must be current
 Learning must be eclectic
 Learning must be inclusive
 Learning must deal with the
essential, not structures and
forms
 Learning must be dynamic
 z

Recalling & Learning

i. Self-recitation
ii. Overlearning
iii. Periodic review
iv. Following a logical
pattern
 Guidelines
z for Curriculum Development
1.) A good curriculum must encourage inquiry and creativity.
2.) A good curriculum must be democratic with regard to
procedures.
3.) A good curriculum must accept individual differences.
4.)A good curriculum must take into consideration scientific and
scholarly techniques and findings.
5.) A good curriculum must minimize memorizing and maximize
discovery.
6.) A good curriculum must take into consideration the potential
for achievement through either the individual learner or the group.
7.) A good curriculum must employ teacher resources in a multi-
dimensional role.
z

Thank you!