Projection Radiography: Pend. Pencitraan Medis Dan KN

Pend.
Pencitraan Medis dan KN Lukmanda Evan Lubis

Departemen Fisika
Projection Radiography
FMIPA Universitas Indonesia
lukmanda.evan@sci.ui.ac.id
Scope of discussion
 The origin (source) of x-rays
 X-ray tubes
 Energizing & controlling the x-rays
 Collimation & filtration
 Factors affecting x-ray spectra & output
 Screen-film radiography
 Computed radiography
 CCD & CMOS
 Flat-Panel Detector
 Analogue vs digital
PART 1
Generating the x-rays
The origin (source) of x-rays
…on the origin of x-rays The Bremsstrahlung

Characteristic radiation
X-ray spectrum
Components of x-ray tubes
 The Production of X Rays involves the Cathode
bombardment of a thick target with energetic Anode
electrons Filament circuit
 Electrons undergo a complex sequence of Generating the tube voltage
collisions and scattering processes during the Automated Exposure Control

Falling load
slowing down process which results in the The tube housing
production of Collimation & filtration
 Bremsstrahlung, and Quantities of x-ray output
 Characteristic Radiation Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Bramsstrahlung The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 Energetic electrons are mostly slowed down in matter by:
Cathode
Anode
 Collisions, and
Filament circuit
 Excitation interactions
Generating the tube voltage
Automated Exposure Control
 If an electron comes close to an atomic nucleus the attractive Falling load
Coulomb forces causes a change of the electron’s trajectory The tube housing
 An accelerated electron or an electron changing its direction Collimation & filtration
emits electromagnetic radiation and given the name: Quantities of x-ray output
Bremsstrahlung Tube voltage and current

Voltage ripple
(braking radiation)
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Bramsstrahlung – con’t The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The energy of the emitted photon is subtracted Cathode
from the kinetic energy of the electron Anode
 The energy of the Bremsstrahlung photon Filament circuit
depends on the Generating the tube voltage

 Attractive Coulomb forces and hence on the
Falling load
 Distance of the electron from the nucleus The tube housing
Collimation & filtration
Quantities of x-ray output
Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
The origin of the spectrum Cathode
Consider that electron bombardment of a thin target yields Anode
a constant energy fluence (Ψ) from zero up to the initial Filament circuit
electron kinetic energy (T) Generating the tube voltage
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
The origin of the spectrum Cathode
A thick target can be thought of as a sandwich of many Anode
thin target layers each producing a rectangular distribution Filament circuit
of energy fluence. Generating the tube voltage
Falling load
The superposition of all these The tube housing
rectangular distributions forms a
triangular energy fluence
distribution for a thick target;
The Ideal Spectrum Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Characteristic radiation The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 A fast electron colliding with an electron of an Cathode
atomic shell could knock out the electron once its Anode
KE exceeds the binding energy of the electron in Filament circuit
that shell Generating the tube voltage
 The binding energy is highest in the most inner K-shell and Automated Exposure Control
decreases for the outer shells (L, M, ..) Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Characteristic radiation The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The scattered primary
Cathode
electron carries away the
Anode
difference of kinetic energy
Filament circuit
and binding energy
 The vacancy in the shell is Automated Exposure Control
then filled with an electron Falling load
from an outer shell The tube housing
accompanied by the emission Collimation & filtration
of an x-ray photon with an Quantities of x-ray output
energy equivalent to the Tube voltage and current
difference in binding energies Voltage ripple
of the shells involved Anode angle
Added filtrations
The X-ray spectra The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
a)Ideal Bremsstrahlung
Cathode
spectrum for a tungsten
anode (tube voltage 90 Anode
kV) Filament circuit
b)An actual spectrum at Generating the tube voltage
the beam exit port with Automated Exposure Control
characteristic X rays Falling load
(anode angle: 20°, The tube housing
inherent filtration: 1 mm Collimation & filtration
Be) Quantities of x-ray output
c)The spectrum Filtered Tube voltage and current
with an equivalent of Voltage ripple
2.5 mm Al Anode angle

Added filtrations
The x-ray tube The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Principle components of an X ray tube are an Electron
Cathode
Source from a heated tungsten filament with a
focusing cup serving as the tube Cathode, an Anode Anode
or Target and a Tube Envelope to maintain an interior Filament circuit
vacuum Generating the tube voltage

Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
The x-ray tube The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Principle components of an X ray tube are an Electron
Cathode
Source from a heated tungsten filament with a
focusing cup serving as the tube Cathode, an Anode Anode
or Target and a Tube Envelope to maintain an interior Filament circuit
vacuum Generating the tube voltage

Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
The x-ray tube – how it works The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The Filament is heated by a current that controls the
Cathode
thermionic emission of electrons, which in turn
determines the number of electrons flowing from Anode
cathode to anode (Tube or Anode Current) Filament circuit

e.g. <10 mA in fluoroscopy and 100 to >1000 mA in single
exposures Automated Exposure Control
 The accelerating Potential Difference applied Falling load
between cathode and anode controls both X ray The tube housing
energy and yield Collimation & filtration
e.g. 40 to 150 kV for general diagnostic radiology and 25 to 40 kV Quantities of x-ray output
in mammography Tube voltage and current
 Thus Two main circuits operate within the XRT: Voltage ripple
 Filament circuit Anode angle
 Tube voltage circuit Added filtrations

The x-ray tube cathode The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
The arrangement
Cathode
of the filament, the
focusing cup, the Anode
anode surface and Filament circuit
the tube voltage Generating the tube voltage
generates an Automated Exposure Control
electric field Falling load
accelerating the The tube housing
electrons towards Collimation & filtration
the focal spot at Quantities of x-ray output
the anode Tube voltage and current

Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
The effect of an The typical Bimodal Anode
Unbiased focusing distribution of the Filament circuit
cup on the current density can
electric field and be seen in a
electron pinhole image of Automated Exposure Control
trajectories the focus Falling load
The tube housing
Numbers indicate potential Voltage ripple
difference near the cup in kV
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Biasing the focusing cup leads to a compression of the
Cathode
trajectories giving a smaller focus
Anode
With an increasing negative bias Filament circuit
voltage at the focusing cup the focus Generating the tube voltage
size will decrease and finally the Automated Exposure Control
electron current will be pinched off
Falling load
The tube housing
Effect is sometimes used to Collimation & filtration
electronically control the focus size or Quantities of x-ray output
for a fast switching of the anode
current (Grid Controlled Tubes) when
Voltage ripple
short radiation pulses are required as
Anode angle
in pulsed fluoroscopy
Numbers indicate potential difference Added filtrations
near the cup in kV

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
The x-ray tube anode The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 For common radiographic applications a high Cathode
Bremsstrahlung yield is mandatory requiring Anode
materials with high atomic numbers (Z) Filament circuit
 Additionally, due to the low efficiency of X ray Generating the tube voltage
production it is also essential that the thermal Automated Exposure Control

Falling load
properties such as Maximum Useful Temperature The tube housing
determined by melting point and vapour Collimation & filtration
pressure, heat conduction, specific heat and Quantities of x-ray output
density are also considered Tube voltage and current
 Tungsten (Z=74) is the optimum choice Voltage ripple

Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 For Mammography other anode materials such as
Cathode
molybdenum (Z=42) and rhodium (Z=45) are frequently
used Anode
Filament circuit
 For such anodes X ray spectra show less contribution by Generating the tube voltage
Bremsstrahlung but rather dominant Characteristic X rays Automated Exposure Control
of the anode materials Falling load
 Allows a more satisfactory Optimization of image quality and
The tube housing
patient dose
 In Digital Mammography these advantages are less Tube voltage and current
significant and some manufacturers prefer tungsten Voltage ripple
anodes Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Line-Focus Principle (Anode Angle) Components of x-ray tubes
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
(a) Line Focus Principle: the length of (b) Graphic representation of the focal
Anode angle
the filament appears shortened in the spot shape at different locations in the
beam direction radiation field (anode angle 20°) Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
The Heel effect Components of x-ray tubes
Cathode
For X rays emerging near the anode side of (a) Absorption of X rays
the X ray field the losses are higher resulting at the cathode side of Anode
in an Inhomogeneous X ray intensity across the X ray field (a1) is less Filament circuit
the beam than at the anode side Generating the tube voltage
(a2)
Falling load
(b) The steep drop in
The tube housing
intensity Irel at the anode
side reflects the Collimation & filtration
increased absorption Quantities of x-ray output
(Heel Effect) Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Stationary & rotating anode The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
For X ray examinations that require only a low anode current or Anode
infrequent low power exposures (e.g. dental units, portable X ray Filament circuit
units and portable fluoroscopy systems) an X ray tube with a
Stationary Anode is applicable
Falling load
Here a small tungsten block serving as the target is Brazed
to a copper block to dissipate the heat efficiently to the The tube housing
surrounding cooling medium Collimation & filtration

As the focal spot is Stationary the maximum loading is Tube voltage and current
determined by anode temperature and temperature Voltage ripple
gradients Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Most X ray examinations need photon fluences which
Cathode
cannot be obtained with stationary anodes as
Anode
bombarding the same spot with higher anode currents Filament circuit
leads to melting and destruction of the anode Generating the tube voltage
In a tube with a rotating anode a tungsten disk rotates Falling load
during an exposure thus effectively increasing the area The tube housing
bombarded by the electrons to the circumference of a Collimation & filtration
Focal Track Quantities of x-ray output

The energy is dissipated to a much larger volume as it is Voltage ripple
spread over the anode disk Anode angle

Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
The filament circuit The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Tube generators The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Single-Phase Generators Cathode

Anode
 Single-phase generators use a Filament circuit
single phase mains supply and a Generating the tube voltage
Step Up Transformer with a fixed
winding ratio
Falling load
 The high voltage is set by a
variation of the primary voltage The tube housing
with a switched Autotransformer Collimation & filtration
 Half-Wave Rectification of the Quantities of x-ray output

transformed voltage gives a 1-Pulse Tube voltage and current
waveform where a pulse is a half- Voltage ripple
wave per period of mains frequency
Anode angle
(50 or 60 Hz)
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Single-Phase Generators Cathode

Anode
 Some low-power X ray units use the Filament circuit
tube as a Self Rectifying Diode with
current only flowing from the
cathode to the anode but reverse Automated Exposure Control
current flow, as a result of a Hot Falling load
Anode is a limiting factor
The tube housing
 Today Solid-State Diodes are used as
rectifiers
 A Full-Wave Rectification yields two
half-waves per period (2-Pulse Tube voltage and current
waveform) Voltage ripple
 Voltage Ripple of 1- and 2-pulse Anode angle
waveforms is 100% Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Three-Phase Generators Cathode

Anode
Filament circuit
 With a three-phase mains supply three AC-voltages each Generating the tube voltage
with a Phase-Shift of 120° are available Automated Exposure Control
 Full-Wave Rectification gives then 6 half-waves per period Falling load
(6-Pulse waveform) with a nominal ripple of 13.4% The tube housing
 Same frequency Collimation & filtration

 Individual rectifying systems
 More efficient and allow for much higher tube output Voltage ripple
than single phase Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
High-Frequency Generators Cathode

Anode
 This type of generator includes a Stabilized Power Filament circuit
Supply in the front end of the device Generating the tube voltage
 First the supply is rectified and filtered to produce a Automated Exposure Control
DC-supply voltage needed for an Inverter Circuit Falling load

The tube housing
 The Inverter generates pulses which are transformed,
rectified and collected in a capacitor to give the high
voltage for the tube
 The inverter Pulse Rate is used to control the tube Voltage ripple
voltage Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum

Anode
 The actual voltage on the tube is sensed by the Filament circuit
generator and compared with the voltage set on the Generating the tube voltage
console Automated Exposure Control
 The difference then is used to change the Pulse Rate of Falling load
the inverter until the set voltage is achieved The tube housing
 Similarly a separate inverter system is used for the tube
current
 The Pulse Shape of a single X ray exposure pulse Voltage ripple
resembles a fundamental frequency of several tens of Anode angle
kHz giving rise to the generator’s name Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum

Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Capacitive Discharge Generators Cathode

Anode
 In places with inadequate mains supply or in remote Filament circuit
locations capacitor discharge generators are helpful Generating the tube voltage
 A capacitor is charged to a high voltage just before an Automated Exposure Control

exposure Falling load
 The capacitor is connected to the XRT with the start and The tube housing
length of exposure controlled by a Grid Collimation & filtration

 High tube currents and short exposure times can be
obtained
Voltage ripple
 However, discharging a capacitor implies a Falling Tube Anode angle
Voltage during exposure Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Constant Voltage Generators Cathode

Anode
 Constant voltage generators achieve a DC-high Filament circuit
voltage with minimal ripple through the use of a Generating the tube voltage
Closed Loop Linear Voltage Controller (e.g. high- Automated Exposure Control
voltage triodes) in series with the tube Falling load
 High frame rates and voltage stability are achieved The tube housing
 Constant potential generators use a Complex
technology with high costs of investment and
operation, and consequently have lost popularity
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Constant Voltage Generators Cathode

Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Voltage waveforms u
and associated tube Cathode
output (dose rate) r for
Anode
(a) 1-pulse
(b) 2-pulse Filament circuit
(c) 6-pulse Generating the tube voltage
(d) 12-pulse
(e) high-frequency
(f) constant voltage Falling load
generators
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Automatic Exposure Control The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
 Exposure of a radiograph can be set Manually by
Anode
choosing tube current and exposure time
Filament circuit
 Except in examinations with little variability in body Automated Exposure Control
dimensions (e.g. extremities) an Automatic Exposure Falling load
Control (AEC) is mandatory to achieve a consistent The tube housing
image quality or film density Collimation & filtration
 The AEC terminates an exposure when the image Tube voltage and current
receptor has received a preset level of radiation Voltage ripple

Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
 The AEC-system consists of 1-3 radiation detectors
Anode
(ionization chambers or solid-state detectors)
Filament circuit
 The signal of these detectors is Amplified and Generating the tube voltage
integrated, corrected for response in photon energy Automated Exposure Control
and dose rate, and finally Compared to the preset Falling load
dose level The tube housing
 The exposure is terminated when the Chosen Level Collimation & filtration
is attained Quantities of x-ray output
 In case the AEC does not terminate the exposure a Tube voltage and current
Backup Timer sets a time limit Voltage ripple

Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 The AEC-system consists of 1-3 Cathode
radiation detectors (ionization Anode

chambers or solid-state detectors) Filament circuit
 The signal of these detectors is Generating the tube voltage
amplified and integrated, corrected Automated Exposure Control
for response in photon energy and Falling load
dose rate, and finally compared to the The tube housing
preset dose level Collimation & filtration
 The exposure is terminated when the Quantities of x-ray output
Chosen Level is attained Tube voltage and current
 In case the AEC does not terminate Voltage ripple
the exposure a Backup Timer sets a Anode angle
time limit Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 Radiographic devices commonly have Cathode
Ionization Chambers as AEC detectors

Anode
Filament circuit
positioned immediately in front of the Generating the tube voltage
radiographic cassette Automated Exposure Control

 The detectors must show no visible radiographic contrast Falling load
on the image The tube housing
 For Low-Energy X ray units (e.g. Collimation & filtration
mammography, paediatric units) this is Quantities of x-ray output

difficult to achieve and detectors are Voltage ripple
positioned behind the image receptor Anode angle
 Solid-State Detectors are mostly employed in this case Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 The position of the detectors is delineated Cathode
on the table top or wall stand to assist the Anode
operator in patient positioning Filament circuit
 As absorption in the patient’s body can Generating the tube voltage
vary substantially across the beam. The
operator can select a detector or a
Falling load
combination of detectors for exposure
control to obtain optimal exposure in the The tube housing
dominant part of the image Collimation & filtration

 As an example, for a chest X ray in PA Quantities of x-ray output
projection, the Two Lateral detectors, Tube voltage and current
positioned under the lung regions, are Voltage ripple
chosen, while in lateral projection the Anode angle
central detector is selected Added filtrations
Falling load The Bremsstrahlung

 To avoid image blurring due to patient motion, short X-ray spectrum

exposure times are mandatory
Cathode
 To produce the shortest possible exposure the generator
Anode
starts with the maximum permissible current and in the Filament circuit
course of the exposure lowers the tube current Generating the tube voltage
consistent with tube ratings (Falling Load) Automated Exposure Control
 Thus the tube is operating at the maximum permissible Falling load
power rating during the entire exposure The tube housing
 In some products an exposure with falling load can be Collimation & filtration
run at a reduced power setting (e.g. 80 % of the Quantities of x-ray output
maximum power) to lower the stresses Tube voltage and current
 The operator sets tube voltage, focus size and if not in Voltage ripple
AEC-mode the mAs-value, but not mA and time Anode angle

Added filtrations
The tube housing The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The tube envelope maintains the required vacuum in Cathode
the XRT Anode
 A Failing vacuum due to leakage or degassing of the Filament circuit

materials causes increased ionization of the gas
molecules which slows down the electrons
Falling load
 Further, a current of Positive Ions flowing back could The tube housing
impair or destroy the cathode filament Collimation & filtration
 The envelope is commonly made of glass but high Quantities of x-ray output
performance tubes increasingly have Glass/Metal or Tube voltage and current
Ceramic/Metal envelopes Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 The tube envelope maintains the required vacuum in Cathode
the XRT Anode
 A Failing vacuum due to leakage or degassing of the Filament circuit

materials causes increased ionization of the gas
molecules which slows down the electrons
Falling load
 Further, a current of Positive Ions flowing back could The tube housing
impair or destroy the cathode filament Collimation & filtration
 The envelope is commonly made of glass but high Quantities of x-ray output
performance tubes increasingly have Glass/Metal or Tube voltage and current
Ceramic/Metal envelopes Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 The housing also provides Radiation Shielding to Cathode
prevent any radiation except the primary beam from Anode
leaving the housing Filament circuit

 The inside of the housing is lined with Lead Sheets to
minimize leakage radiation
Falling load
 The maximum acceptable exposure due to Leakage The tube housing
Radiation is limited by regulation Collimation & filtration
 Tube housings also provide Mechanical Protection Quantities of x-ray output
against the impact of envelope failure Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Collimators The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The limitation of the X ray field to the size required for Cathode
an examination is accomplished with Collimators Anode
 The benefits of collimating the beam are Twofold: Filament circuit

 Reduction of patient dose
 Improvement of image contrast due to reduced
Falling load
scattered radiation The tube housing
 A Collimator Assembly is typically attached to the tube Collimation & filtration
port defining the field size with adjustable parallel- Quantities of x-ray output
opposed lead Diaphragms or blades Tube voltage and current
 To improve the effectiveness of collimation Another Set Voltage ripple
of blades might be installed at some distance to the Anode angle
first blades in the collimator housing Added filtrations


X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 Visualization of the X ray field is achieved by a Mirror Cathode
reflecting the light from a bulb Anode
 The bulb position is adjusted so the mirrored light Filament circuit

appears to have the same origin as the Focal Spot of
the tube
Falling load
 The light field then mimics the actual X ray field The tube housing
 The Congruency of light and X ray field is subject to Collimation & filtration
quality control Quantities of x-ray output
 One must be aware that some of the penumbra at the Tube voltage and current
edges of the radiation field is due to Extra Focal Voltage ripple
Radiation Anode angle
Added filtrations

X-ray spectrum
 Adjustment of the field size is done Manually by the Cathode
operator Anode
 But with a PBL (Positive Beam Limitation) System the Filament circuit
size of the imaging detector is automatically registered
and the field size is adjusted accordingly
Falling load
 For Fluoroscopy other collimator types are in use with The tube housing
variable circular and slit diaphragms Collimation & filtration
 In some applications (dental and head examinations) Quantities of x-ray output
Beam Restrictors with a fixed field size are typically Tube voltage and current
used Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Inherent filtrations The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 X rays generated in the anode pass various Attenuating Components of x-ray tubes
materials before leaving the tube housing, including: Cathode
 Anode Anode
 Tube envelope exit port (glass or metal) Filament circuit
 Insulating oil Generating the tube voltage
 Window of the tube housing Automated Exposure Control
 This Inherent Filtration is measured in aluminium Falling load
equivalents in units of mm Al The tube housing

Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Inherent filtrations The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 Aluminium does not perfectly mimic the atomic Cathode
composition of the attenuating materials present Anode
 Thus measurement of the Al Equivalent is usually made Filament circuit

at 80 kVp (or otherwise the kVp settings should be
stated)
Falling load
 Typically the inherent filtration ranges from 0.5-1 mm The tube housing
Al Collimation & filtration
 The mirror and the window in the collimator housing Quantities of x-ray output
also contribute to inherent filtration with an Al- Tube voltage and current
equivalent of ~1 mm Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
X-ray output The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 Total Photon Fluence is not a satisfactory quantity to Cathode
describe X ray output Anode
 Rather it is the Spectral Distribution of the photon Filament circuit

fluence as a function of photon energy which is useful
 Spectral data are rarely available for individual X ray
Falling load
units although computer programs exist which give The tube housing
useful Simulations Collimation & filtration
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
X-ray output: characters The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 X ray Tube Output can be expressed in terms of the air Cathode
kerma and measured free-in-air Anode
 A measure for the Penetrability and the Quality of the X Filament circuit
ray spectrum is the Half-Value Layer, (HVL)
 The HVL is the thickness of absorber needed to
Falling load
attenuate the X ray beam incident air kerma by a The tube housing
factor of 2 Collimation & filtration
 In diagnostic radiology Aluminium is commonly chosen Quantities of x-ray output
as absorber giving the HVL in units mm Al Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Tube voltage & current The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Tube voltage & current The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 Both Maximum and Mean photon energy depend Cathode
on kV Anode
 The shape of the Low Energy end of the spectrum is Filament circuit
determined by the anode angle and the total
filtration
Falling load
 Note the appearance of Characteristic Radiation in The tube housing
the 100 kV beam and the increase in Photon Yield Collimation & filtration
with increasing tube voltage Quantities of x-ray output
 Tube current has no influence on the Photon Tube voltage and current
Distribution; however photon intensities are Voltage ripple
proportional to mAs Anode angle
Added filtrations
Voltage ripple The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 A DC voltage gives the Hardest spectrum with Maximum photon yield Cathode
 With an increase in ripple the yield Drops and the spectrum Softens Anode
Filament circuit
Variation of X ray
spectra from a
tungsten target with Automated Exposure Control
tube voltage ripple at Falling load
70 kVp tube voltage The tube housing
DC: constant potential
3.4%: 12-pulse or Quantities of x-ray output
converter generator Tube voltage and current
13.4%: 6-pulse Voltage ripple
generator
Anode angle
100%: 2-pulse
generator Added filtrations
Anode angle The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The Anode Angle determines the degree of Cathode

Anode
X ray absorption in the anode material Filament circuit
 A decrease in anode angle causes an Generating the tube voltage
increase in the Absorption Length within the Automated Exposure Control
target Falling load

The tube housing
 Accordingly, the maximum photon energy Collimation & filtration
remains unchanged but Hardness increases Quantities of x-ray output
and Yield drops with decreasing anode angle Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Anode angle The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 The Anode Angle determines the degree of Cathode

Anode
X ray absorption in the anode material Filament circuit
 A decrease in anode angle causes an Generating the tube voltage
increase in the Absorption Length within the Automated Exposure Control
target Falling load

The tube housing
 Accordingly, the maximum photon energy Collimation & filtration
remains unchanged but Hardness increases Quantities of x-ray output
and Yield drops with decreasing anode angle Tube voltage and current
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Added filtrations The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
 Increasing filtration gives Spectral Hardening Cathode

Anode
and reduction in Tube Output Filament circuit
 X Ray Contrast declines with spectrum Generating the tube voltage
hardness which should be considered in the Automated Exposure Control
selection of optimal exposure parameters Falling load

The tube housing
 Anode Roughness increases with total tube Collimation & filtration
workload and increases self-filtration Quantities of x-ray output
 Hence tubes tend to show a slight Increase in Tube voltage and current
X ray hardness and a Decrease in kerma Voltage ripple

Anode angle
output with operational tube life Added filtrations
Added filtrations The Bremsstrahlung

X-ray spectrum
Cathode
Anode
Filament circuit
Falling load
The tube housing
Voltage ripple
Anode angle
Added filtrations
Scope of discussion
 X-ray tubes
 CCD & CMOS
PART 2
Producing the image
Projection radiography
 Radiography  2D image from Beam geometry
Analogue: the screen
3D object Analogue: the film
 Projecting x-ray shadows of Screen-film: how to get image
patient’s anatomy into detectors Basics of CR
 projection radiography CR readout procedure

CCD and CMOS cameras
 X-ray source is a small spot, the The flat-panel detector
x-ray produced are diverged Analogue vs digital
away, being less intense and
wider with the increasing
distance
 Resulting in MAGNIFICATION
MAGNIFICATION (M) Beam geometry
Limage ab Analogue: the film
m  Screen-film: how to get image
Lobject a Basics of CR
CR readout procedure
 M always >> 1, unless b  0 CCD and CMOS cameras

The flat-panel detector
 SID (source-imager distance) (a + b) Analogue vs digital
typically 100 cm
 Except in chest radiography
 Problem: the focal spot is physically not a point! Beam geometry
 Causes blurry image Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 The edge gradient (Lg) is dependent to Screen-film: how to get image
magnification and focal spot size (Lf) Basics of CR
b
Lg  L f
a Analogue vs digital
 Best geometry: patient being as close to

detector as possible
 Problem: the focal spot is physically not a point! Beam geometry
 Causes blurry image Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 The edge gradient (Lg) is dependent to Screen-film: how to get image
magnification and focal spot size (Lf) Basics of CR
b CR readout procedure
Lg  b Lf
Lg a L f
a Analogue vs digital
 Best geometry: patient being as close to

detector as possible
Screen-film radiography
Beam geometry
 The screen-film comprises a pair of screen Analogue: the film
sandwiching a sheet of photo-sensitive film Screen-film: how to get image
 A light-tight casing (called cassette) encloses the Basics of CR
sandwich CR readout procedure

 Preventing light interverence The flat-panel detector
 Film-filled cassette is inserted into bucky table or Analogue vs digital
bucky stand
Screen-film radiography
Beam geometry
 The screen-film comprises a pair of screen Analogue: the film
sandwiching a sheet of photo-sensitive film Screen-film: how to get image
 A light-tight casing (called cassette) encloses the Basics of CR
sandwich CR readout procedure

 Preventing light interverence The flat-panel detector
 Film-filled cassette is inserted into bucky table or Analogue vs digital
bucky stand
The screen
Beam geometry
 Composed of scintillator Analogue: the film
Phosphor Plastic  Small phosphor crystal Screen-film: how to get image

base (Gd2O2S) 25 mm Basics of CR
 By scintillation principle, IS CR readout procedure
converts incoming X-Ray

into visible light Analogue vs digital
 Visible light darkens silver

halide film
The screen
Beam geometry
 Screen films are composed Analogue: the film
by high-Z elements  Screen-film: how to get image
better absorption Basics of CR
 In the past, CaWO4 were CR readout procedure
used CCD and CMOS cameras
 Today: Gd2O2S, LaOBr, or The flat-panel detector
YTaO4 Analogue vs digital
 Thicker screens absorb

more, but more blurry also
The screen
Beam geometry
 Screen films are
Analogue: the film
composed by high-Z
Screen-film: how to get image
elements  better
Basics of CR
absorption
 In the past, CaWO4 were
used
 Today: Gd2O2S, LaOBr, or
Analogue vs digital
YTaO4
 Thicker screens absorb
more, but more blurry also
The screen
Beam geometry
Analogue: the film
Basics of CR
Analogue vs digital
The film
 Film is composed of a thin plastic base coated on Beam geometry
one or both sides with a layer of light-sensitive Analogue: the screen
emulsion consisting of silver halide grains Analogue: the film

 95% AgBr
Basics of CR
 15% AgI CR readout procedure
 Crystals held in water-soluble gelatin CCD and CMOS cameras

Analogue vs digital
Top view
Silver halide crystal grains
Gelatin
The film
 Film is composed of a thin plastic base coated on Beam geometry
one or both sides with a layer of light-sensitive Analogue: the screen
emulsion consisting of silver halide grains Analogue: the film

 95% AgBr
Basics of CR
 15% AgI CR readout procedure
 Crystals held in water-soluble gelatin CCD and CMOS cameras

Analogue vs digital
Top view
Silver halide crystal grains
Gelatin
The film
Beam geometry
 The film’s response to Analogue: the screen
radiation quantity is Analogue: the film
not linear Screen-film: how to get image

Basics of CR
 A characteristic curve CR readout procedure
presents CCD and CMOS cameras
 Hurter & Driffield (H & The flat-panel detector
D) curve Analogue vs digital
I
T
I0
OD   log(T )
10
The film
The Speed and Dynamic Range Beam geometry
 Speed  how much exposure to obtain

Analogue: the film
specific OD (normally 1+base+fog) Screen-film: how to get image
 Dynamic range (latitude)  with of contrast Basics of CR
range displayable CR readout procedure

Analogue vs digital
How to get images
 Silver halide crystal are produced T-shaped Beam geometry
 Increasing light capture efficiency Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 Reducing cost (silver)
 When exposed to visible light, some Ag+ ions are Basics of CR
reduced (getting e-) undergoing the reaction: CR readout procedure
Ag+ + e-  Ag CCD and CMOS cameras

 Ag+ becoming metallic Ag
Analogue vs digital
 If  5 Ag+ ions are reduced, a stable “latent” image
centers are produced
 Image is formed, but still invisible (only at the
centers of the grains)
How to get images
After exposure Beam geometry
 Exposed films are taken out of its housing (cassette)
and then bathed in developer Analogue: the film
 Developer contains reducer
Basics of CR
 Metallic Ag atoms at the grain centers acts as catalyst CR readout procedure
 reducing the remainder of Ag+ into metallic Ag in CCD and CMOS cameras
that grain The flat-panel detector
 Whole exposed grain is blackened, making it visible Analogue vs digital
 The film will be bathed again in a fixer (oxidizing
solution), that will get rid of unstimulated or
understimulated silver halide
 Rinsed with water to dissolve developer and fixer
Computed radiography
 Similar with Screen-Film Radiography, Beam geometry
differentiated by the detector and post- Analogue: the screen
exposure procedure
Analogue: the film
 Also using cassette (a different type) Basics of CR
 Storage Phosphor (PSP) are used CR readout procedure
 CR plate composed of 85% BaFBr and 15% BaFI CCD and CMOS cameras
with Eu doping (for electron trapping) The flat-panel detector

Analogue vs digital
 While in SFR the image is taken chemically, in
CR image are stored for later-on readout
 Read (or erased) cassette are reusable
 When exposed by X-Ray, BaFBr phosphors Beam geometry
absorbs energy, causing Eu electrons to be Analogue: the screen
excited (Eu2+  Eu3+)

Analogue: the film
 Mobile electrons entrapped in the dopings, Basics of CR
being stored even for weeks CR readout procedure

 Readout process can be started anytime after The flat-panel detector
exposure Analogue vs digital
Beam geometry
Analogue: the film
Basics of CR
Analogue vs digital
CR readout procedure: Beam geometry
 The cassette is moved into the reader unit, and the
imaging plate is mechanically removed from the Analogue: the film
cassette. Screen-film: how to get image

Basics of CR
 The imaging plate is translated vertically in the (y)
direction by rollers across a moving stage and is scanned
horizontally in the (x) direction by a laser beam of
approximately 700 nm wavelength. The flat-panel detector
Analogue vs digital
 Red laser light stimulates the emission of trapped energy
in a tiny area (x,y location) of the imaging plate, and
blue-green visible light is emitted from the storage
phosphor as energetic electrons drop down to their
ground state.
CR readout procedure (cont’d): Beam geometry
 The light emitted through photostimulated luminescence is Analogue: the screen
collected by a fiber optic light guide and strikes a Analogue: the film
photomultiplier tube (PMT), where it produces an Screen-film: how to get image
electronic signal. Basics of CR
 The electronic signal is digitized and stored as a pixel value. CR readout procedure
For every spatial location (x, y) on the imaging plate, a CCD and CMOS cameras
corresponding gray scale value is determined that is The flat-panel detector

proportional to the locally absorbed x-ray energy. Analogue vs digital
 The plate is exposed to bright white light to erase any

residual trapped energy.
 The imaging plate is returned to the cassette and is ready
for reuse.


for reuse.


for reuse.
Charged-coupled device
 Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) detects images Beam geometry
from visible light range Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 Basically a chip (crystalline silicon array) acting Screen-film: how to get image
as camera Basics of CR
 Silicon surface of CCD is photosensitive CR readout procedure

 When exposed to light, e- in each dexel is The flat-panel detector
liberated, confined on the cells by voltage Analogue vs digital
arrangements
CMOS chip
 Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Beam geometry
light-sensitive array is similar to CCD Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 Also based on crystalline silicon array Screen-film: how to get image
 Basically a Random Access Memory matrix, Basics of CR
each dexel with their own photo-sensitive

detectors, storage capacitors, and active The flat-panel detector
readout electronics Analogue vs digital
 Low voltage for each dexel (3-5 V)

 Major issue: electronic noise
CMOS chip

Analogue: the film


CMOS chip

Analogue: the film


Flat-panel detectors
 Made of amorphous silicon Beam geometry
 With lithographic etching enabling Analogue: the film
electronic connections and components to Screen-film: how to get image
be situated Basics of CR
 Consists of TFT (Thin-Film-Transistor) matrix CR readout procedure

 In a dexel, TFT, charge-collecting electrode, The flat-panel detector
and storage capacitors are in place Analogue vs digital

 During exposure, Beam geometry
TFT switch is closed Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 Electrons (charge) Screen-film: how to get image
gather and is stored Basics of CR
accordingly CR readout procedure

 Gate turns The flat-panel detector
(activated) Analogue vs digital
sequentially,
allowing
accumulated charge
to drain row-by-row
 During exposure, Beam geometry
TFT switch is closed Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 Electrons (charge) Screen-film: how to get image
gather and is stored Basics of CR
accordingly CR readout procedure

 Gate turns The flat-panel detector
(activated) Analogue vs digital
sequentially,
allowing
accumulated charge
to drain row-by-row
 Indirect detection Beam geometry
 X-ray  visible light  detection
Analogue: the film
 Direct detection Screen-film: how to get image
 X-ray  electrons  detection Basics of CR

Analogue vs digital
Indirect detection Beam geometry
 Utilizing a scintillator to convert x-rays to Analogue: the film
light with optical coupling of the scintillator to Screen-film: how to get image
the active matrix Basics of CR
 The scintillator is layered on the front surface CR readout procedure

of the flat panel array The flat-panel detector
 Using CsI instead of Gd2O2S grown in Analogue vs digital
columnal crystals
 To get rid of blurring effect
Direct detection Beam geometry
 Uses a semiconductor material that produces Analogue: the film
electron-hole pairs in proportion to the Screen-film: how to get image
incident x-ray intensity Basics of CR
 Commonly using amorphous Selenium (a-Se) CR readout procedure

layered as depletion between dielectric layers The flat-panel detector
 Very short chain of process, less noise/error Analogue vs digital
probability
Beam geometry
Analogue: the film
Basics of CR
Analogue vs digital
Analogue vs digital
Advantages of digital over analogue systems Beam geometry
for radiography Analogue: the screen

Analogue: the film
 Lower dose needed (theoretically) Basics of CR

 Higher resolution CCD and CMOS cameras
 Greater dynamic range The flat-panel detector

Analogue vs digital
Analogue vs digital
Advantages related to Convenience in use: Beam geometry
 Elimination of handling and carrying of cassettes Analogue: the screen
 Immediate evaluation of images for image quality and Analogue: the film
positioning Screen-film: how to get image
 Transmission of digital images Basics of CR

 Digital archiving, searching PACS
 Elimination of unique image (film)
 Image processing to more optimally present the image
Analogue vs digital
information to the reader
 Elimination of distortion and shading (c.f. XRIIs)
 Enabling advanced applications (e.g. digital
tomosynthesis, cone beam CT, dual energy imaging
and CAD)
Analogue vs digital – dose creep
Dose creep Beam geometry
Analogue: the film
Basics of CR
Analogue vs digital
Scope of discussion
 X-ray tubes
 CCD & CMOS
Questions…
1. Cahaya tampak pada CR, apa bisa?
2. Mengapa pada CR harus convert, sedangkan di DR langsung digital
3. Energi laser apakah harus 2 eV? Bisakah digunakan cahaya dengan
lambda lain?
4. Desitometri mengukur densitas? Densitas apa?
Questions
5. Proses kerja CR
6. Kapan kaset/CR harus diganti?
7. Kurva karakteristik
8. Pita valensi, pita konduksi?
9. Baca ulang pada CR?
10. Beda indirect dan TFT
11. Perbedaan faktor eksposi
12. Fungsi phospor
Food for your thought…
Bonus slide
Thank you
lukmanda.evan@sci.ui.ac.id

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Pencitraan Medis dan KN Lukmanda Evan Lubis

…on the origin of x-rays The Bremsstrahlung

 Electrons undergo a complex sequence of Generating the tube voltage

collisions and scattering processes during the Automated Exposure Control

Bramsstrahlung The Bremsstrahlung

Bremsstrahlung Tube voltage and current

Bramsstrahlung – con’t The Bremsstrahlung

 The energy of the Bremsstrahlung photon Filament circuit

depends on the Generating the tube voltage

Bramsstrahlung – con’t The Bremsstrahlung

Bramsstrahlung – con’t The Bremsstrahlung

Bramsstrahlung – con’t The Bremsstrahlung

Characteristic radiation The Bremsstrahlung

Characteristic radiation The Bremsstrahlung

The X-ray spectra The Bremsstrahlung

kV) Filament circuit

b)An actual spectrum at Generating the tube voltage

the beam exit port with Automated Exposure Control

characteristic X rays Falling load

(anode angle: 20°, The tube housing

inherent filtration: 1 mm Collimation & filtration

Be) Quantities of x-ray output

c)The spectrum Filtered Tube voltage and current

with an equivalent of Voltage ripple

2.5 mm Al Anode angle

The x-ray tube The Bremsstrahlung

or Target and a Tube Envelope to maintain an interior Filament circuit

vacuum Generating the tube voltage

The x-ray tube The Bremsstrahlung

or Target and a Tube Envelope to maintain an interior Filament circuit

vacuum Generating the tube voltage

The x-ray tube – how it works The Bremsstrahlung

cathode to anode (Tube or Anode Current) Filament circuit

 The accelerating Potential Difference applied Falling load

energy and yield Collimation & filtration

 Filament circuit Anode angle

 Tube voltage circuit Added filtrations

The x-ray tube cathode The Bremsstrahlung

anode surface and Filament circuit

the tube voltage Generating the tube voltage

generates an Automated Exposure Control

electric field Falling load

accelerating the The tube housing

electrons towards Collimation & filtration

the focal spot at Quantities of x-ray output

the anode Tube voltage and current

The x-ray tube cathode The Bremsstrahlung

The x-ray tube cathode The Bremsstrahlung

The x-ray tube cathode The Bremsstrahlung

The x-ray tube anode The Bremsstrahlung

production it is also essential that the thermal Automated Exposure Control

 Tungsten (Z=74) is the optimum choice Voltage ripple

The x-ray tube anode The Bremsstrahlung

The x-ray tube anode The Bremsstrahlung

The x-ray tube anode The Bremsstrahlung

The x-ray tube anode The Bremsstrahlung