Database Management System

Lecture 02
By Hemant Tulsani
Assistant Professor
ECE Department

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Till now we have covered…
• Database and Database Management Systems
• File system and its drawbacks
• Schemas and Instances
• Levels of Abstraction

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In this lecture…
• Data Independence
• Data Models
• Database Languages and SQL
• Database Design
• Database Engine
• Database Users
• Database Architecture

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Data Independence
• Capacity to change the schema at one level of abstraction without having
to change schemas at another level.
• Only the mapping between the two levels is changed.
• Physical data independence
– capacity to change the internal (physical) schema without having to change the
conceptual (or external) schemas
– for example, by creating additional access structures—to improve the
performance of retrieval or update.

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Data Independence
• Logical data independence
– capacity to change the conceptual (logical) schema without having to change
external (view level) schemas or application programs.
– to expand the database (by adding a record type or data item), or to reduce the
database (by removing a record type or data item).
– Application programs must work after the conceptual schema undergoes a
logical reorganization as well.

• In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components

should be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously
influence others.
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Data Models
• Underlying the structure of a database
• A collection of tools for describing
– Data
– Data relationships
– Data semantics
– Data constraints
• Relational model
• Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
• Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
• Semi-structured data model (XML)
• Other older models:
– Network model
– Hierarchical model
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Entity-Relationship Data Model
• Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
– Entity: a “thing” or “object” in the enterprise that is distinguishable from other
objects
• Described by a set of attributes
– Relationship: an association among several entities
• Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:

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Relational Model
• The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the
relationships among those data.
• Each table has multiple columns, Attributes,
Columns
and each column has a unique name.

Faculty
Rows
Tuples,
Records
Relation Name
Table

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Object Based Data Models
• Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
• Object Relational Data Models
– Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and constructs
to deal with added data types.
– Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-atomic values
such as nested relations.
– Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to data,
while extending modeling power.
– Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

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Object Relational Data Model

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Extensible Markup Language (XML)
• Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
• Originally intended as a document markup language not a database
language
• The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures made
XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
• XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
• A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and querying
XML documents/data

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XML Example
<mydata> // database
<authors> // table
<author> //tuple
<name>Robert Roberts</name> //attribute
<address>10 Tenth St, Decapolis</address>
<editor>Ella Ellis</editor>
<born>1960/05/26</born>
</author>
<author>
<name>Tom Thomas</name>
<address>2 Second Av, Duo-Duo</address>
<editor>Ella Ellis</editor>
</author>
</mydata>
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Database Languages and SQL
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
– Specification notation for defining the database schema
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
– Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the appropriate data
model
• Data Control Language (DCL)
– allows database administrators to configure security access of users to relational
databases.
• SQL
– The most widely used commercial language

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Database Design
• The process of designing the general structure of the database
• Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database design
requires that we find a “good” collection of relation schemas.
– Business decision – What attributes should we record in the database?
– Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should we have and
how should the attributes be distributed among the various relation schemas?
• Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database
– File organization
– Internal storage structures

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Database Design (Cont.)
Any
problem
with this
relation?

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Database Design (Cont.)
• Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each of the relations in the
database is “good”
• Two ways of doing so:
– Entity Relationship Model
• Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
• Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship diagram:
– Normalization Theory
• Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them

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Database Design (Cont.)
• Entity Relationship Model

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Database Design (Cont.)
• Normalize Table
• Undesirable properties in a bad
design
– Repetition of information
• Changing budget needs
multiple row update
– Inability to represent certain
information
• New department cannot be
added if no faculty is there

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Database Design (Cont.)
• Normalized Tables
• Table 1: instructor
– ID
– name
– salary
– dept_id
• Table 2: department
– ID
– dept_name
– building
– budget

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Database Design (Cont.)
• Normalized Tables
• Table 1: instructor
– ID
– name
– salary
– dept_id
• Table 2: department
– ID
– dept_name
– building
– budget

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Database Engine
• Storage management: program module that provides the interface
between the low-level data stored in the database and the application
programs and queries submitted to the system

• Query processing: Parsing and translation, Optimization, Evaluation

• Transaction Management: transaction control and concurrency control

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Database Users and Administrators
• People who work with a database
can be categorized as database
users or database administrators.
• Database Users
– Naive users
– Application programmers
– Sophisticated users
– Specialized users
• Database Administrator (DBA)

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Database Users and Administrators
Database Administrator
• A person who has such central control over the system is called a database
administrator (DBA).

Functions:
• Schema definition.
• Storage structure and access-method definition.
• Schema and physical-organization modification.
• Granting of authorization for data access.
• Routine maintenance.
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Database Architecture
• Centralized
• Client-server
• Parallel (multi-processor)
• Distributed

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Database Architecture (Cont.)
• Most users of a database system are not present at the site of the database
system, but connect to it through a network.
• Client machines, on which remote database users work, and
• Server machines, on which the database system runs.

• Two-Tier Architecture
• Three-Tier Architecture

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Database Architecture (Cont.)

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 System Architecture

27
System Architecture

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System Architecture

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Recent Database Trends
in Industry

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SQL vs No SQL

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Most Popular Databases

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Single Database Vs. Multi-
Database Use

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SQL & NoSQL Multiple
Database Combinations

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Most Popular Multiple Database
Type Combinations

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Most Important Metric Tracked
For Database Performance

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Most Time-Consuming Database
Management Task

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Top Cloud Database Providers

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Top Cloud Database Providers

• AWS
• Microsoft Azure
• Oracle Database Cloud
• IBM Db2 on Cloud
• Google Cloud Platform
• Mongo DB Atlas
• SAP
• Rackspace
and many more...
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AWS Suite of Databases

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End of Section I of Unit I

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