Principles of Flight ATPL Chapter 10 (Stability and Control)

PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT
Chapter 10, Stability and Control

Introduction
An aircraft must have the following qualities:
֎ Adequate stability to maintain a uniform flight condition.
֎ The ability to recover from various disturbing influences.
֎ Sufficient stability to minimize the workload of the pilot.
֎ Proper response to the controls so that it may achieve its design performance with adequate
manoeuvrability.
Static Stability
The type of static stability an aircraft possesses is defined by its initial tendency, following the removal of
some disturbing force.
֎ Positive static stability
֎ Neutral static stability
֎ Negative static stability

Aeroplane Reference Axes
Static Longitudinal Stability
A wing considered alone is statically unstable because the Aerodynamic Centre (AC) is in front of the
CG.
Neutral Point
Static Margin
Trim and Controllability
The establishment of trim (equilibrium) at various conditions at flight may be accomplished by:
֎ pilot effort
֎ trim tabs
֎ variable incidence trimming tailplane
֎ moving fuel between the wing tanks and an aft located trim tank, or
֎ bias of a surface actuator (powered flying controls)
A high degree of stability gives reduced controllability.

Graphic Presentation of Static Longitudinal Stability
Aeroplane with positive static longitudinal stability.
Comparison of a stable and an unstable condition.
Contribution of the Component Surfaces
Pitching moments contributed by the:
֎ fuselage and nacelles
֎ horizontal tail, and
֎ power effects as well as pitching moments contributed by the wing.

Wing
The aerodynamic centre is defined as the point on the wing Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) where
the wing pitching moment coefficient does not vary with lift coefficient.
Fuselage and Nacelles

Horizontal Tail
The effectiveness of the tailplane is dependet upon:
֎ Downwash from the wing.
֎ Dynamic pressure at the tailplane.
֎ Longitudinal dihedral.
Longitudinal Dihedral
The difference between tailplane and wing incidence.

Tailplane will be sufficient to overcome the sum of the de-stabilising moments from the other components
of the aeroplane.
Downwash
Downwash decreases static longitudinal stability.

Power – off Stability

Effect of CG Position
With the CG at the neutral point, all changes in net lift effectively occur at that point and no change in
pitching moment results. The neutral point defines the most aft CG position without static instability.
Power Effects
Power effects will be most significant when the aeroplane operates at high power and low airspeeds
such as during approach and while taking off.
Power Effects
The momentum change of the slipstream creates a normal force at the plane of the propeller.
The magnitude of the unstable contribution depends on the distance from the CG to the propeller and
is largest at high power and low dynamic pressure.
Power Effects
Power Effects
The deflection of the slipstream shown by the normal force at the propeller tends
to increase the downwash at the horizontal tail and reduce the contribution to stability.
The induced flow at the horizontal tail of a jet aeroplane is slight and is destabilising when the jet passes
underneath the horizontal tail.
High Lift Devices
High lift devices tend to increase downwash at the tail and reduce the dynamic pressure at the tail,
both of which are destabilizing.
Control Force Stability
the aeroplane static stability is unchanged but the trim lift coefcient is increased.
As the CG is moved aft the slope of this line decreases and the decrease
in stability is evident by a given control displacement causing a greater change in trim lift
coefcient.
This is evidence that decreasing stability causes increased controllability and, of
course, increasing stability decreases controllability.
If the CG location is ahead of the neutral point and control position is directly related to surface
deflection, the aeroplane will give evidence of stick position stability. In other words, the
aeroplane will require the stick to be moved aft to increase the angle of atack and trim at a
lower airspeed and to be moved forward to decrease the angle of atack and trim at a higher
airspeed.
When the aeroplane is properly trimmed, a push force is required to increase airspeed
and a pull force is required to decrease airspeed. In this manner, the aeroplane would have
positive stick force stability with a stable “feel” for airspeed.
If the CG is aft of the neutral point, stick force instability will exist,
e.g. the aeroplane will require a push force at a lower speed or a pull
force at a higher speed.
Manoeuvre Stability
Due to the pitching velocity in manoeuvring flight,

the longitudinal stability of the aeroplane is
slightly greater than in steady flight conditions.
Manoeuvre Stability
The CG position when the tail moment would be the same as the wing moment
during manoeuvring is known as the manoeuvre point and this “neutral
point” will be further aft than for 1g flight.
Stick Force Per ‘g’
The pitch damping of the aeroplane is related to air density. At high altitudes, the high TAS
reduces the change in tail angle of attack for a given pitching velocity and reduces the pitch
damping.
Increasing altitude at a constant IAS, decreases aerodynamic damping.
Tailoring Control Forces
Stick Centring Spring
The stick centring spring will increase the airspeed

and manoeuvring stick force stability but the contribution decreases at high airspeeds.
Down Spring
The down spring would provide improvement in airspeed stick force stability.
But the manoeuvring stick force stability would be unchanged.
Bobweight
The bobweight will increase the airspeed stick force gradient and increase the
feel for airspeed.
The bobweight also has an effect on the manoeuvring stick force gradient since the bobweight
mass is subjected to the same acceleration as the aeroplane.
Longitudinal Control
The lower limits of controllability will set the upper limits of static stability.
Take – off Control Requirement
To balance these two nose down moments (by friction) , the horizontal tail must be capable of
producing a nose up moment big enough to attain the takeoff atitude at the specifed speed.
Landing Control Requirement
A wing in proximity to the ground will experience a decrease in tip vortices and downwash.
The decrease in downwash at the tail tends to increase the static stability and produce a nose
down moment from the reduction in download on the tail.
As an example of ground effect, a typical propeller powered aeroplane may require as much as
15° more up elevator to trim at CL MAX in ground effect than in free flight.
The forward CG limit is set by the minimum permissible controbility.
The aft CG limit is set by the minimum permissible stability.

Dynamic Stability
Dynamic stability
Dynamic Stability
Dynamic instability
Dynamic Stability
Neutral dynamic instability

Dynamic Stability
Dissipation of energy or damping is necessary to provide positive dynamic stability.

Dynamic Stability
When natural aerodynamic damping cannot be obtained, artificial damping must be provided to give
the necessary positive dynamic stability.
Dynamic Stability
IF AN AIRCRAFT IS STATICALLY UNSTABLE,

IT CANNOT BE DYNAMICALLY STABLE.
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Long Period Oscillation (Phugoid)
Long period oscillation is easily controlled by the pilot.

Short Period Oscillation
Short period oscillation is not easily controlled by the pilot.

Directional Stability and Control
Sideslip Angle
Static Directional Stability
Static Directional Stability
Contribution of the Aeroplane Components
Fuselage
Dorsal and Ventral Fins

Dorsal and Ventral Fins
The effectiveness of dorsal and ventral fns increases with increasing sideslip angle, so that the
combination of a fuselage with dorsal or ventral fn is stable at large sideslip angles.
Fin
The fin (vertical stabiliser) is the major source of directional stability for the aeroplane.
Wing and Nacelles
The contribution of a straight wing alone is usually negligible.
Sweepback produces a stabilizing effect, which increases with increase in CL.
Engine nacelles on the wings produce a contribution that will depend on such factors as their size and
position and the shape of the wing planform.
Power Effect
The general effect of power is destabilising and the greatest contribution will occur at
high power and low dynamic pressure.
High Angle of Attack
When the aeroplane is at a high AoA a decrease in static directional stability can be anticipated..
(reduces the effectiveness of fin)
Static directional stability is essentially unaffected by the variation of CG position

Ventral Fin
Ventral fins may be added as an additional contribution to directional stability

Lateral Stability and Control
Static Lateral Stability
Static Lateral Stability
Wing
The changes in lift gives a Rolling moment tending to raise the into – wind wing, hence geometrical
dihedral contirbutes a stable role due to sideslip.
Wing Position
A low wing position gives an unstable contribution.
A high wing position gives a stable contribution.

Wing Position
A high wing position, on the other hand, usually requires no geometric dihedral at all.
Sweepback
The swept back wing contributes a positive “dihedral effect”.

An aircraft with a swept-back wing requires less geometric dihedral than a staight wing.
The fin contribution to purely lateral static stability is usually very small.
The ventral fin, being below the aircraft CG, has a negative influence on lateral static stability.
Partial Span Flaps Reduce Lateral Stability

Lateral Dynamic Effects
The principal effect which determine the lateral dynamic characteristics of an aeroplane are:
Rolling moment due to sideslip, or ‘dihedral effect’ (static lateral stability).
Yawing moment due to sideslip, or static directional stability.

Spiral Divergence
Spiral divergence wil exist when static directional stability is very large when compared to the ‘dihedral
effect’.
Dutch Roll
Dutch roll will occur when the ‘dihedral effect’ is large when compared to static directional stability.
Pilot Induced Oscillation (PIO)
When pilot induced oscillation is encountered, the most effective solution is an immediate release
of the controls. Any atempt to forcibly damp the oscillation simply continues the excitation and
amplifes the oscillation.
Mach Trim
As speed increases beyond the Critical Mach number (MCRIT), shock wave formation at the root of a
swept-back wing will:
reduce lift forward of the CG, and
reduce downwash at the tailplane.
Together, these factors will generate a nose – down pitching moment.

This unfavourable characteristic, known as “Mach Tuck”, “High Speed Tuck” or “Tuck Under”
Mach Trim
To maintain the required stick force gradient at high Mach numbers, a Mach trim system must be fitted.
This device, sensitive to Mach number, may:
deflect the elevators up,
decrease the incidence of the variable incidence trimming tailplane, or
move the CG rearwards by transferring fuel from the wings to a rear trim tank.
A Mach trim system will adjust longitudinal trim and operates only at high Mach numbers.

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PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

Chapter 10, Stability and Control

֎ Adequate stability to maintain a uniform flight condition.

֎ The ability to recover from various disturbing influences.

֎ Sufficient stability to minimize the workload of the pilot.

֎ Positive static stability

֎ Neutral static stability

֎ Negative static stability

֎ variable incidence trimming tailplane

֎ bias of a surface actuator (powered flying controls)

A high degree of stability gives reduced controllability.

Pitching moments contributed by the:

֎ fuselage and nacelles

֎ horizontal tail, and

֎ power effects as well as pitching moments contributed by the wing.

Fuselage and Nacelles

The effectiveness of the tailplane is dependet upon:

֎ Downwash from the wing.

֎ Dynamic pressure at the tailplane.

The difference between tailplane and wing incidence.

Downwash decreases static longitudinal stability.

Power – off Stability

Due to the pitching velocity in manoeuvring ﬂight,

Stick Centring Spring

The stick centring spring will increase the airspeed

The forward CG limit is set by the minimum permissible controbility.

The aft CG limit is set by the minimum permissible stability.

Neutral dynamic instability

Dissipation of energy or damping is necessary to provide positive dynamic stability.

IF AN AIRCRAFT IS STATICALLY UNSTABLE,

Long period oscillation is easily controlled by the pilot.

Short period oscillation is not easily controlled by the pilot.

Dorsal and Ventral Fins

Dorsal and Ventral Fins

Wing and Nacelles

The contribution of a straight wing alone is usually negligible.

Sweepback produces a stabilizing effect, which increases with increase in CL.

High Angle of Attack

Static directional stability is essentially unaﬀected by the variation of CG position

Ventral fins may be added as an additional contribution to directional stability

A low wing position gives an unstable contribution.

A high wing position gives a stable contribution.

The swept back wing contributes a positive “dihedral eﬀect”.

Partial Span Flaps Reduce Lateral Stability

Rolling moment due to sideslip, or ‘dihedral effect’ (static lateral stability).

Yawing moment due to sideslip, or static directional stability.

reduce lift forward of the CG, and

reduce downwash at the tailplane.

Together, these factors will generate a nose – down pitching moment.

deflect the elevators up,

decrease the incidence of the variable incidence trimming tailplane, or

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