C I R C U I T S W / R , L & C , R C F I LT E R S ,

AC BRIDGES AND MAGNETIC

FORCES
WEEK 3
FIRST ORDER CIRCUITS
First order circuits are circuits that contain only one energy storage element (capacitor or inductor), and
that can, therefore, be described using only a first order differential equation. The two possible types of
first-order circuits are:
• RC (resistor and capacitor)
• RL (resistor and inductor)
RL and RC circuits is a term we will be using to describe a circuit that has either a) resistors and
inductors (RL), or b) resistors and capacitors (RC).
RL CIRCUITS
An RL Circuit has at least one resistor (R) and one inductor (L). These can be arranged in parallel, or in
series. Inductors are best solved by considering the current flowing through the inductor. Therefore, we
will combine the resistive element and the source into a Norton Source Circuit. The Inductor then, will
be the external load to the circuit. We remember the equation for the inductor:
If we apply KCL on the node that forms the positive terminal of the voltage source, we can solve to get
the following differential equation:
RC CIRCUITS
An RC circuit is a circuit that has both a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C). Like the RL Circuit, we will
combine the resistor and the source on one side of the circuit, and combine them into a thevenin source.
Then if we apply KVL around the resulting loop, we get the following equation:
BOARD WORK
B A S I C S O F PA S S I V E R C F I LT E R S
What Is a Filter?
A filter is a circuit that removes, or “filters out,” a specified range of frequency components. In other
words, it separates the signal’s spectrum into frequency components that will be passed and frequency
components that will be blocked.
Let’s imagine that we have an audio signal that consists of a perfect 5 kHz sine wave. We know what a
sine wave looks like in the time domain, and in the frequency domain we will see nothing but a
frequency “spike” at 5 kHz. Now let’s suppose that we activate a 500 kHz oscillator that introduces high-
frequency noise into the audio signal.
The signal as seen on an oscilloscope will still be only one sequence of voltages, with one value per
moment of time, but the signal will look different because its time-domain variations must now reflect
both the 5 kHz sine wave and the high-frequency noise fluctuations.
In the frequency domain, though, the sine wave and the noise are separate frequency components that are
present simultaneously in this one signal. The sine wave and the noise occupy different portions of the
signal’s frequency-domain representation (as shown in the diagram below), and this means that we can
filter out the noise by directing the signal through a circuit that passes low frequencies and blocks high
frequencies.
Types of Filters
Filters can be placed into broad categories that correspond to the general characteristics of the filter’s
frequency response. If a filter passes low frequencies and blocks high frequencies, it is called a low-pass
filter. If it blocks low frequencies and passes high frequencies, it is a high-pass filter. There are also
band-pass filters, which pass only a relatively narrow range of frequencies, and band-stop filters, which
block only a relatively narrow range of frequencies.
The RC Low-Pass Filter
To create a passive low-pass filter, we need to combine a resistive element with a reactive element. In
other words, we need a circuit that consists of a resistor and either a capacitor or an inductor. In theory,
the resistor-inductor (RL) low-pass topology is equivalent, in terms of filtering ability, to the resistor-
capacitor (RC) low-pass topology. In practice, though, the resistor-capacitor version is much more
common.

An RC low-pass response is created by placing a resistor

in series with the signal path and a capacitor in parallel
with the load. In the diagram, the load is a single
component, but in a real circuit it might be something
much more complicated, such as an analog-to-digital
converter, an amplifier, or the input stage of the
oscilloscope that you are using to measure the response
of the filter.
Intuitively analyze the filtering action of the RC low-pass topology if we recognize that the resistor and
the capacitor form a frequency-dependent voltage divider.

When the frequency of the input signal is low, the impedance of

the capacitor is high relative to the impedance of the resistor;
thus, most of the input voltage is dropped across the capacitor
(and across the load, which is in parallel with the capacitor).
When the input frequency is high, the impedance of the
capacitor is low relative to the impedance of the resistor, which
means that more voltage is dropped across the resistor and less
is transferred to the load. Thus, low frequencies are passed and
high frequencies are blocked.

The RC low-pass filter redrawn so that it

looks like a voltage divider.
The Cutoff Frequency
The range of frequencies for which a filter does not cause significant attenuation is called the passband,
and the range of frequencies for which the filter does cause significant attenuation is called the stopband.
Analog filters, such as the RC low-pass filter, always transition gradually from passband to stopband.
This means that it is impossible to identify one frequency at which the filter stops passing signals and
starts blocking signals. However, engineers need a way to conveniently and concisely summarize the
frequency response of a filter, and this is where the concept of cutoff frequency comes into play.
The cutoff frequency of an RC low-pass filter is actually the frequency at which the amplitude of the
input signal is reduced by 3 dB (this value was chosen because a 3 dB reduction in amplitude
corresponds to a 50% reduction in power). Thus, the cutoff frequency is also called the –3 dB frequency,
and in fact this name is more accurate and more informative. The term bandwidth refers to the width of a
filter’s passband, and in the case of a low-pass filter, the bandwidth is equal to the –3 dB frequency (as
shown in the diagram below).
As explained above, the low-pass behavior of an RC filter is caused by the interaction between the frequency-
independent impedance of the resistor and the frequency-dependent impedance of the capacitor. To determine the
details of a filter’s frequency response, we need to mathematically analyze the relationship between resistance (R)
and capacitance (C), and we can also manipulate these values in order to design a filter that meets precise
specifications. The cutoff frequency (fc) of an RC low-pass filter is calculated as follows:
Example.
Capacitor values are more restrictive than resistor values, so we’ll start with a common value of capacitance (such as
10 nF), and then we’ll use the equation to determine the required resistance value. The goal is to design a filter that
will preserve a 5 kHz audio waveform and reject a 500 kHz noise waveform. We’ll try a cutoff frequency of 100
kHz, and later we’ll more analyze the effect of this filter on the two frequency components.
Calculating Filter Response
We can calculate the theoretical behavior of a low-pass filter by using a frequency-dependent version of a
typical voltage-divider calculation. The output of a resistive voltage divider is expressed as follows:
The RC filter uses an equivalent structure, but instead of R2 we have a capacitor. First, we replace R2 (in
the numerator) with the reactance of the capacitor (Xc). Next, we need to calculate the magnitude of the
total impedance and place that in the denominator. Thus, we have

The reactance of a capacitor indicates the amount of opposition to current flow, but unlike resistance, the amount
of opposition depends on the frequency of the signal passing through the capacitor. Thus, we have to calculate
reactance at a specific frequency, and the equation that we use for this is the following:
In the example above,
R ≈ 160 Ω and C = 10 nF. We’ll assume that the amplitude of Vin is 1 V, so that we can simply remove
Vin from the calculation. First let’s calculate the amplitude of VOUT at the sine-wave frequency:
A C B R I D G E S
AC bridges are the circuits that are used for the measurement of electrical quantities such as inductance,
capacitance, resistance. Along with these an ac bridge allows us to measure storage factor, loss factor,
dissipation factor etc. AC bridges operate with only AC signal.
An AC bridge is used to provide phase shifting and providing a feedback path to the oscillator.
AC Bridge network construction
An AC bridge consists of 4 nodes with 4 arms, a source excitation and a balanced detector.
Each of the 4 arms of the bridge consists of impedance.
It is similar in form to the Wheatstone bridge for measuring an unknown resistance. To measure L and C, however,
an ac source is required as well as an ac meter instead of the galvanometer.

The ac meter may be a sensitive ac ammeter or voltmeter.

The bridge is balanced when no current flows through the meter.

This means that V1 = V2. Applying the voltage division principle,

Figure 1. A general ac bridge

 Hence, Specific ac bridges for measuring L and C are drawn in Figure.
(2), where Lx and Cx are the unknown inductance and
capacitance to be measured while Ls and Cs are a standard
inductance and capacitance (the values of which are known to
great precision).
or
In each case, two resistors, R1 and R2, are varied until the ac
meter reads zero. Then the bridge is balanced. From Equation.
(3), we get

This is the balanced equation for the ac

bridge.

Figure 2. Spesific ac bridges: (a) for measuring L, (b) for

measuring C
Notice that the balancing of the ac bridges in Figure.(2) does not depend on the frequency f
of the ac source since f does not appear in the relationships in Equations.(4) and (5).
AC Bridge Circuit Example:
1. The ac bridge circuit of Figure.(1) balances when Z1 is a 1 kΩ resistor, Z2 is a 4.2 kΩ resistor, Z3 is a
parallel combination of a 1.5 MΩ resistor and a 12 pF capacitor, and f = 2kHz. Find: (a) the series
components that makeup Zx, and (b) the parallel components that makeup Zx.
Solution :
From Equation.(3),

where Zx = Rx + jXx,

AND
 (b) If Zx is made up of parallel components, we notice that
Z3 is also a parallel combination. Hence, Eq. (1-1) becomes

(a) Assuming that Zx is made up of series components, we

substitute Eqs. (Z1= 1K and Z2=4.2K) in Eq. (1-1) and obtain

capacitive reactance
MAGNETIC FORCE
magnetic force, attraction or repulsion that arises between electrically charged particles
because of their motion. It is the basic force responsible for such effects as the action of 
electric motors and the attraction of magnets for iron. Electric forces exist among stationary 
electric charges; both electric and magnetic forces exist among moving electric charges. The
magnetic force between two moving charges may be described as the effect exerted upon either
charge by a magnetic field created by the other.
The magnetic force F on the second particle is proportional to its charge q2, the magnitude of its
velocity v2, the magnitude of the magnetic field B1 produced by the first moving charge, and the
sine of the angle theta, θ, between the path of the second particle and the direction of the
magnetic field; that is, F = q2B1v2 sin θ. The force is zero if the second charge is travelling in the
direction of the magnetic field and is greatest if it travels at right angles to the magnetic field.
Sometimes we want to find the force on a wire carrying a current (I) in a magnetic field. This can be
done by rearranging our previous expression. If we recall that velocity is a distance / time then if a wire
has length (L) we can write;
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
1. A electric power line carries a current of 1400 A in a location where the earth's magnetic field is 5.0 ×
10 T. The line makes an angle of 75° with respect to the field. Determine the magnitude of the magnetic
force on a 120­m length of line.
2. A particle of mass 10 kg is moving with speed 10 m/s perpendicular to
a magnetic field B = 5.0 x 10 T* (charge of +e = 1.60 x 10 C).
(a) What is the force on the particle?
(b) What is the radius of the circle in which it moves?
(c) What is the period for its motion?
(d) If its speed were doubled, what would its period be?
3. A wire loop is bent into the shape of a square with each side of length 4.5 cm. The loop is placed
horizontally on a tabletop with two of the sides oriented north/south and two of the sides oriented
east/west. A battery is connected so that a current of 24 mA is produced around the loop; the current
flows in the clockwise direction looking from the top. If the Earth's magnetic filed at the location has a
magnitude of 5×10 −4 T. What is the force produced by the earth’s magnetic field on each section of
current-carrying wire? What is the overall torque on the loop? What would the torque be if the same
length of wire were bent into a circle instead of a square (assuming the same current)?
Solution: