LECTURE-16

Working with command line interface In LINUX

MULTIPROGRAMMING
 Goal of multiprogramming is to efficiently utilize all of the
computing resources.
 I/O devices very slow
 When a job issues an I/O request (e.g., open a file, read data
from a file), it cannot continue until the request is fulfilled.
 The CPU then becomes idle (the job is blocked on the request).
 When one program is waiting for I/O, another can use the CPU
MULTIPROGRAMMING:
 Multiprogramming is a technique to execute number of
programs simultaneously by a single processor.
 In Multiprogramming, number of processes reside in main
memory at a time.
 The OS picks and begins to executes one of the jobs in the
main memory.
 If any I/O wait happened in a process, then CPU switches from
that job to another job.
 Hence CPU in not idle at any time.
MULTIPROGRAMMING
(CONTD…):
OS • Figuredepicts the layout of
multiprogramming system.
Job 1
• The main memory consists of 5
Job 2 jobs at a time, the CPU executes
one by one.
Job 3
Advantages:
Job 4 •Efficient memory utilization

Job 5 •Throughput increases

•CPU is never idle, so
performance increases.
MULTITASKING
 Using multiprogramming to handle multiple interactive
jobs
 Processor’s time is shared among multiple users

 Multiple users simultaneously access the system through

terminals
TIME SHARING SYSTEMS:
 Time sharing, or multitasking, is a logical extension of
multiprogramming.
 Multiple jobs are executed by switching the CPU between
them.
 In this, the CPU time is shared by different processes, so it is
called as “Time sharing Systems”.
 Time slice is defined by the OS, for sharing CPU time between
processes.
 Examples: Multics, Unix, etc.,
 User 2

User 3 Shared
User1
Computer

User 4
 User 2

User 3 Shared
User1
Computer

User 4
 User 2

User 3 Shared
User1
Computer

User 4
 User 2

User 3 Shared
User1
Computer

User 4
ADVANTAGES
 User Interact to the system
 Context Switching is introduced
MULTIPROCESSING
 There are multiple processors
 These processors share same main memory and I/O facilities
 All processors can perform the same functions
MULTIPROCESSING
 Running program, job and process almost interchangeably.
 Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of
another process.
 Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of
another process
 Perhaps exchanging info or control via some mechanisms (comm &
sync)
 – Advantages of process cooperation (concurrency)
 • Information sharing
 • Computation speed-up
 • Modularity
 • Convenience
MODERN OPERATING SYSTEMS
 Multithreading
 Process is divided into threads that can run concurrently

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 Thread
 Dispatchable unit of work
 executes sequentially and is interruptable

 Process is a collection of one or more threads

TYPES OF OS:
Operating System can also be classified as,-

 Single User Systems

 Multi User Systems

SINGLE USER SYSTEMS:

 Provides a platform for only one user at a time.

 They are popularly associated with Desk Top operating

system which run on standalone systems where no user
accounts are required.
 Example: DOS
MULTI-USER SYSTEMS:

 Provides regulated access for a number of users by

maintaining a database of known users.

 Refers to computer systems that support two or more

simultaneous users.

 Another term for multi-user is time sharing.

 Ex: All mainframes and  are multi-user systems.

 Example: Unix
WHAT IS LINUX
 Linux is, in simplest terms, an operating system.
 Linux is an open source software.

 Linux is a multitask and multiuser operating system.

 The Linux operating system is written in the C

programming language.
WHY USE LINUX/UNIX?

 System is written in a high-level language => easy to read,

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understand, change and port to other machines.
 Simpler user interface or user services
 Provides simple routines to write complex programs/develop
utilities
 Hierarchical file system for easy maintenance
 Consistent format for files (byte streams) making application
development easier
 Simple, consistent interface to peripheral devices
THE BIRTH OF LINUX

 On August 25, 1991,

 By LINUS Torvalds: a Finn computer science student

 Torvalds built the core of the Linux operating system,

known as the kernel.
UNIX Architecture

• Kernel
Application Programs
• Shell
UNIX commands and

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libraries
• Utilities
System call
interface

bash

H/W

who
Kernel

wc

vi
Some Basic Characteristics of Linux

• Multi-user System

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• Multiprogramming/Multitasking system

• Uses Time Sharing

• Access rights for Files and Processes

• Uses File and Process hierarchies

Linux File System

Characteristics:

• Hierarchical structure

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• Consistent treatment of file data
• Ability to create, modify and delete files
• Dynamic growth of files
• Protection of file data
• Treating peripheral devices (terminals, tapes, etc.) as
files
Linux File System Layout (RedHat)

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Directory Structure of Linux File System

Directory Content
Common programs, shared by the system, the system administrator and
/bin
the users.

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The startup files and the kernel, vmlinuz. In recent distributions also grub
/boot data. Grub is the GRand Unified Boot loader and is an attempt to get rid
of the many different boot-loaders we know today.
Contains references to all the CPU peripheral hardware, which are
/dev
represented as files with special properties.
Most important system configuration files are in /etc, this directory
/etc
contains data similar to those in the Control Panel in Windows
/home Home directories of the common users.
/initrd (on some distributions) Information for booting. Do not remove!
Library files, includes files for all kinds of programs needed by the
/lib
system and the users.
Directory Structure of Linux File System
Directory Content
Every partition has a lost+found in its upper directory. Files that were saved during
/lost+found
failures are here.
/misc For miscellaneous purposes.

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/mnt Standard mount point for external file systems, e.g. a CD-ROM or a digital camera.
/net Standard mount point for entire remote file systems
/opt Typically contains extra and third party software.
A virtual file system containing information about system resources. More information
/proc about the meaning of the files in proc is obtained by entering the command man proc in
a terminal window.
The administrative user's home directory. Mind the difference between /, the root
/root
directory and /root, the home directory of the root user.
/sbin Programs for use by the system and the system administrator.
/tmp Temporary space for use by the system.
/usr Programs, libraries, documentation etc. for all user-related programs.
Storage for all variable files and temporary files created by users, such as log files, the
/var mail queue, the print spooler area, space for temporary storage of files downloaded
from the Internet, or to keep an image of a CD before burning it.
Types of files in a Linux System

"On a UNIX system, everything is a file; if something is not a file, it is a

process."

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Regular files : they contain normal data, for example text files, executable files
or programs, input for or output from a program and so on.
Directories: files that are lists of other files.
Special files: Devices treated as files, used for input and output. They exist
in /dev.
Links: a system to make a file or directory visible in multiple parts of the
system's file tree.
(Domain) sockets: a special file type, similar to TCP/IP sockets, providing inter-
process networking protected by the file system's access control.

Named pipes: act more or less like sockets and form a way for processes to
communicate with each other, without using network socket semantics.
Permissions of a file

•Read

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•Write

•execute
 Listing files in a Linux System
The -l option to ls displays the file type, using the first character of each input line:

psdg/Documents> ls –l

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total 8
-rw-rw-r-- 1 psdg faculty 31744 Feb 21 17:56 samplefile1.doc
lrw-rw-r-- 1 psdg faculty 41472 Feb 21 17:56 samplefile2
drwxrwxr-x 2 psdg faculty 4096 Feb 25 11:50 os-course/
crw-rw-r-- 1 psdg faculty 41472 Feb 21 17:56 /dev/tty00

Symbol Meaning
- Regular file
d Directory
l Link
c Special file
s Socket
p Named pipe
User Accounts

• login nmes

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• passwords

• user id

• group id

• Home directory
EVVIRONMENTS
 Gnome: GNU Network Object Model Environment
 KDE: K Desktop Environment.

 XFCE: XForms Common Environment

 LXDE. Lightweight X11 Desktop Environment

GNOME ENVIRONMENT
KDE ENVIRONMENT
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN LINUX
• Shell:
this is a program in the system that allows you to give
the commands you want to execute. It is the basic
programs that connects you to the operating system.
Types of shells :BASH , CSH,KSH
• Terminal:
A terminal consists of a screen and keyboard that one
uses to communicate remotely with a computer (the
host).
Types of terminal:
• Text , dumb , GUI
TERMINOLOGIES USED IN LINUX.
 Prompts:  
A prompt is a character or string of characters (such as $
or #) that the shell displays when it is ready to receive a
new command. You'll learn about the different types of
prompts and how to customize them to suit you and the
way you work.
SHELL COMMANDS
 ls: Displays a list of files in the current working
directory, like the dir command in DOS

• ls-l: Adding the option -l will give you a long listing

which includes the permissions, ownership, size, date/time,
and name of the files and directories...
SHELL COMMANDS
 Another example would be adding -a (ls -a) to list ALL the files in
the current directory, including hidden files.

-d list the name of the current directory

-f show directories with a trailing '/' executable files with a trailing
'*‘
-g show group ownership of file in long listing -i print the inode
number of each file
-r list all subdirectories encountered
-t sort by time modified instead of name
SHELL COMMANDS
 cd- Change Directories

 Touch- Creates a file known as "newfile.txt", if the file

does not already exist. If the file already exists the
accessed / modification time is updated for the file
newfile.txt
SHELL COMMANDS
rm- rm is the command used, to remove the file from
directory.
SHELL COMMANDS
mv: To move or rename a file