Lines, Lettering, Constructional Geometry

TA 101AA - Engineering Graphics

Dr. Pankaj Wahi
Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering,
IIT Kanpur, Kanpur
Basics of Drawing : Lines & Lettering
• ‘Lines’ represent the shape of an object in the form
of either an edge, a surface, or contours of the
object

• ‘Lettering’ is used to describe the size and other

necessary information

• Lines & lettering along with certain symbols,

abbreviations, and standard practices collectively
make the complete description of an object on an
engineering drawing

12/16/2021 Introduction and Construction Geometry 2

Types of Lines

Object- Continuous thick

Dimension-Arrowed line
Construction-Continuous thin
Hidden-Dashed line
Center line-Chain thin
Hinge line-Chain thick

12/16/2021 Introduction and Construction Geometry 3

Types of Lines…contd
Center Line
Object Line

Top Viewing
Direction
100 Top View

Hidden Line
Construction Line

Front Viewing
Direction Front View

IMPORTANT NOTE:
Object lines and construction lines should always be distinguishable
 You may use H for object lines and 2H for construction lines
 You should NOT erase the construction lines after drawing (in this course)
12/16/2021 Introduction and Construction Geometry 4
Lettering: It all starts with A, B, C,.. .1,
2,3… !!!!!
•Guidelines are
construction lines.
Cap Line

Atg
Waist Line

•Light pencil lines –

Base Line
use 2H/H pencil. Drop Line

•For capital letters,

Body of small letters = 2/3 of Capital
draw only cap line letters
and base line.
Cap line and Drop line are 1/3 each
from waist and Base lines
•Waist line and drop
line required for e.g. Capital letter = 9 mm
Body of small letter = 6 mm
Cap and Drop lines = 3 mm
lowercase letters.
Principles of lettering

• Engineering lettering is commonly UPPERCASE.

Title block: 8/6 mm, Dimensions : 6 mm

• Each letter is made up of a series of single strokes.

• Judging by the eye, the distance between the

letters should be approximately equal.

• Letters and Number using H Pencil

• Use only CAPITAL LETTERS and NUMBERS.

Principles of lettering

• Legibility: Each letter must be distinct.

• Stability: The bottom of letters such as B are larger than the top.

• Composition: Each portion of each letter is formed to an exact

standard.

• Uniformity: All “A’s” are alike, all “B’s are alike, etc.

• Alignment: The vertical axes passing through all letters are

parallel. No slant!
 Lettering : Acute Angle Stroke

ü û
Stroke the pencil in the acute angle direction. This will save
the paper from tearing 8
USE THIS IN ALL DRAWINGS
Lettering practice ! (Lab + Home)
Why take so much trouble?

• Drawings made in one country may be

used for manufacturing parts or assembly
in another country !

• Need for STANDARDS !

(BIS, DIN, JIS, ASTM …)

 Scales
Cannot draw all objects on drawing sheet in full size.

Scales e.g.:
1:2, 1:5,1:10, etc.

Note: Always actual

dimension are written
on drawings.

Note: A drawing
should always have
the SCALE 19
SCALES
 Some basic geometric shapes

21
5 6 7 8 9 10 12
Some basic geometric shapes

Cylinders and Cones 22

 Constructional Geometry: The
conic sections
 Circle: Plane perpendicular to axis.

 Ellipse: Angle between plane and

axis is greater than cone half angle.

 Parabola: Angle between plane and

axis is equal to cone half angle.

 Hyperbola: Angle between plane

and axis is smaller than cone half angle.

23
 Importance of drawing ellipse:
 A circle looks as an ellipse when viewed at an angle
 Sharp edges not preferred and are connected by
circular/elliptic arcs

24
 Ellipse: Basic
D
a.)
Ellipse: is a curve orD
i
aj

Minor Dia.
generated by a point =1
/2
(M
us
moving such that the F1 adi Major Dia. F2
R
A B
sum of its distances
from the focuses (foci) is
equal to the major P
diameter. E

AB : Major diameter.
DE : Minor diameter.
F1 , F 2: Focii
25
 Concentric Circle Method
• Draw concentric circles (given major and minor diameters)
• The intersections of lines
with AB and DE as through P and P‘,Q and Q', etc.
diameters. Q give points on the ellipse.

• From a number of D • Need more closely

P paced points near
points on the outer Q’
circle, such as P the major diameter
and Q, Draw for higher accuracy.
P’
radii OP, OQ, etc.
intersecting A B
the inner O
circle
at P‘,Q', etc.

• From P, Q, etc. draw

E 2b
lines parallel to OD and
from P', Q', etc. draw lines
parallel to OB. An exact method 26

2a
 Parallelogram Method
• Can be used either with the • Divide AG into any number of
major and minor diameters or equal parts and AO into the same
with any pair of conjugate number of equal parts, numbering
diameters. (angle between points from A.
them is 90°) G D
3
2
1
A O
B
1 2 3

E
• On the given diameters • Through these points draw
AB and DE construct a lines from D and E as shown.
parallelogram. • Their intersections will be
points on the ellipse. An exact method
27
 Ellipse: Concept of Conjugate Diameters

• Any line through the centre of an

ellipse may serve as one of a pair of
conjugate diameters.

• Two diameters are said to be

conjugate when each diameter
is parallel to the tangents at the
ends of the other diameter.
• A given ellipse may have
an unlimited number of pairs
• AB and CD are a pair of of conjugate diameters.
conjugate diameters:
AB // MN, PQ and CD //MP, NQ.
28
• With any pair of conjugate diameters. • Through these points draw
(angle other than 90°) lines from D and E as shown.
• On the given diameters AB and DE • Their intersections will be points
construct a parallelogram. on the ellipse.
• With O as centre, OD as
Conjugate Diameter radius draw a arc cutting
Ellipse – G
J
D the ellipse at H
Parallelogram 3
Method 2
Conjugate
1 diameters N
A O
B

mino
1 2 is 3 • Join the line DH
r ax
M majo and draw parallel line
r ax
is H
to DH cutting the
ellipse at J and K to
K
E get minor axis
• Divide AG into any number of equal
parts and AO into the same number of • Through O draw a perpendicular
equal parts, numbering and cutting the ellipse at point M
points from A. and N to get the major axis 29
 Conjugate Diameter Ellipse – Circle method
• From S, P, etc.
Q draw lines parallel
• Conjugate diameters S P
AB and DE given. to QD and RE from
S', P', etc. draw lines
• Draw a circle with D parallel to OD.
AB as diameter.
• Draw OQ and OR
perpendicular
to AB. O
A B
• Join QD and
RE
• Intersection of
lines through P &
E P', S & S', etc. give
• From a number of
points on the
points on either side
ellipse.
of Q, such as P and S,
draw perpendiculars S’ R P’ An approximate
30
PP', SS', etc. to AB. method
 Four - centre Method
• Bisect AF by a
• Join A and D. perpendicular crossing AO
A’ at G and intersecting DE
H’ (extend if necessary) at H.
• With O as centre and
OA as radius, mark A'. D
F • Mark OG = OG’
and OH = OH’

A O B
G G’

• Lay off DF
equal to AO – DO E
• With D as centre and • G, G', H and H' become centers
DA' as radius, mark F H
for four tangent circle arcs
forming a curve approximating
An approx method the shape of an ellipse. 31
 Perpendicular from a point Perpendicular from a point
to a given line: on a given line:

• Point P as centre; any • Any convenient centre C and

convenient radius R1; draw an arc
intersecting given line at A and B.
• Any convenient radius R2; centres
at A and B; draw intersecting arcs
locating Q.
• PQ required perpendicular.
P Q
radius CP.
• Draw an arc slightly larger than a
semicircle from the intersection of
the arc with the given line at A.
• Extend AC to meet the circle arc
at Q.
• PQ required perpendicular.
Q

R1 C
S R2 x
A R2
B A
A B P
R2 R2 P
R1 R1
Q
32
 Tangents

• Point of tangency for line AB

and circle with center D.

- Draw DC perpendicular to AB.

C is tangent point.

• Circle of given radius (R) passing

through a given point (S)
and tangent to a given line .

- Draw line AB parallel to given line

at distance R.

- Given point S as center, cut line

AB at O with an arc of the given
radius R.

- O is the center of the circle.

Tangent arcs : Engineering requirement?

An arc of given radius R

tangent to two lines AB and
CD.

• At any convenient point on the

given lines draw arcs R and Rl.

• Draw parallels to the given lines

through the limits of the arcs.

• Their intersection at point O is

the center of the required arc.
Tangent arcs : Engineering requirement?

An arc of given radius R to two

perpendicular lines.

• Draw an arc of radius R with

center at corner A.

• With T and Tl as centers and

with the same radius R draw arcs
intersecting at O.

• O is the center of the required

arc.
 Tangent arcs
An arc of given radius R tangent to a
given circle and line AB.
• AB is the given line and R1 is the radius of the
given circle centered at 0.

• Draw a line CD parallel to AB at a distance R

from it.

• With O as center and radius R + R1, swing an

arc intersecting CD at X.

• X is the center of the desired arc.

• The tangent point for AB will be on

a perpendicular to AB from X.
• The tangent point for the two
circles will be on a line joining their
centers X and 0.
 Tangent arcs
An arc of given radius R tangent to two given circular arcs:
CASE I: Centres of given arcs inside required arc.
O
• R1 and R2 are the radii of the given R1
circles with O and P as their centres.

1
R+R
• With O as centre & radius R - R1, draw an arc.
• P as centre & radius R - R2, draw another arc.
• Intersection point Q is the centre of the R
required arc. Tangent points on lines joining
Q
centres: OQ, PQ.

R2
R (Radius of the arc)
R+R2
P

CASE II: Centres of given arcs outside

R2

R1 required arc.
R P
O • O and P as centres. With radii R+R1 and
R+R2, draw arcs intersecting at Q.
R-
R

R2
1

R - • Q is the centre of the required arc.

• Tangent points on lines joining centres:
Q OQ, PQ. 37
 Line and angle bisectors

38
 Polygon: Hexagon
Circumscribing circle Inscribing circle

d
60

Vertex-to-vertex distance Distance between flats

39
 Septagon or any regular polygon
Given a side

A B

40
Examples involving concepts learned so far

41
END