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Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 7e: Chapter 1: History, Theories
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 7e: Chapter 1: History, Theories
Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development, 7e: Chapter 1: History, Theories
Adolescence: Voyages
in Development, 7e
Chapter 1: History, Theories,
and Methods
©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
Learning Objectives
By the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
1-1 Define child development, explain why researchers study child development, and describe
the history of the study of child development.
1-2 Describe and evaluate theories of child development, including psychoanalytic theory,
learning theories, cognitive-developmental theory, biological views, ecological systems theory, and
the sociocultural perspective.
1-3 Discuss controversies in child development, including the nature–nurture controversy,
whether development is continuous or discontinuous, and whether children are active or passive
participants in their development.
1-4 Explain how researchers study child development, referring to the scientific method, methods
of observation, the correlational method, the experiment, and longitudinal versus cross-sectional
studies.
1-5 Discuss ethical considerations in the study of child development.
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1.1 What Is Child Development?
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What Is Child Development? (1 of 4)
• Defining childhood: the period from infancy to puberty
− Infancy: the first two years of life, until development of complex speech
• Early childhood: from 2 to 5 years
• Middle childhood: from 6 to 12 years
• Adolescence: from 13 to 20 years
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What Is Child Development? (2 of 4)
Dimensions of development:
− Biological
− Cognitive
− Social
− Emotional
− Behavioral
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What Is Child Development? (3 of 4)
• Defining development:
− Qualitative changes
Changes in type or kind
Development
− Quantitative changes
Changes in amount
Growth
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What Is Child Development? (4 of 4)
• Field of study that tries to understand the processes that govern the
appearance and growth of children’s
− Biological structures
− Psychological traits
− Behavior
− Understanding
− Ways of adapting to demands of life
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Why Do Researchers Study Child
Development?
• To gain insight into
− Human nature
− Origins of adult behavior
− Origins of sex differences and gender roles
− Effects of culture on development
− Origins, prevention, and treatment of developmental problems
• To optimize conditions of development
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Views of Children Throughout History (1 of 2)
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Views of Children Throughout History (2 of 2)
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Pioneers in the Study of Child Development
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1.2 Theories of Child Development
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Theories of Child Development (1 of 2)
• John B. Watson
− Behaviorism—learning
− Nurture
• Arnold Gesell
− Biological maturation
− Nature
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Theories of Child Development (2 of 2)
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What Is the Psychoanalytic Perspective on
Child Development?
• View of children (and adults) as in conflict
− Internal basic drives conflict with external limits
− Internalize “external” demands and rules
− Conflict then occurs between these opposing inner forces
• Freud’s theory of psychosexual development
• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
• Stage theories
− Distinct periods of development
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Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual
Development
• Sigmund Freud (1856–1939)
• Levels of awareness
− Conscious and unconscious
• Parts of personality
− Id
− Ego
− Superego
• Quantity of gratification at each stage
− Fixated at that stage
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Stages of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development (1 of 2)
• Oral stage
− Sucking
− Early weaning or breastfed too long
− Fixation: nail-biting, smoking, “biting wit”
• Anal stage
− Control and elimination of waste
− Excessively strict or permissive toilet training
− Fixation: anal-retentive (neatness); anal-expulsion (sloppiness)
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Stages of Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of
Development (2 of 2)
• Phallic stage
− Parent–child conflict over masturbation
− View same-sex parent as rival
• Latency stage
− Sexual feelings remain unconscious
• Genital stage
− Begins at adolescence
− Desire sexual gratification through intercourse with member of other sex
Interest in any other sexual gratification is fixation at the earlier stage
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Evaluation of Psychosexual Theory of
Development
• Contributions
− Comprehensive theory of childhood
− Influenced parents, child-care workers, educators
• Criticisms
− Based on emotionally troubled female patients
− Little empirical data
− Overemphasis on instincts and unconscious motives (Erik Erikson,
Karen Horney)
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Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial
Development
• Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
− Modified and expanded Freud’s theory
− Successful resolution of life crises bolsters sense of identity
• Differences from psychosexual development
− Focuses on development of self-identity
− Includes conscious and purposeful acts in development
− Extends stages to eight, throughout adulthood
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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial
Development
• Trust versus mistrust
• Autonomy versus shame and doubt
• Initiative versus guilt
• Industry versus inferiority
• Identity versus role diffusion
• Intimacy versus isolation
• Generativity versus stagnation
• Ego integrity versus despair
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Evaluation of Erikson’s Psychosocial
Development Theory
• Highly appealing
− Emphasizes choice and minimizes urges
− Portrays people as prosocial and helpful
• Some empirical support
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What Are the Learning Perspectives on Child
Development?
• Behaviorism
− Observable behaviors only
− Classical conditioning
− Operant conditioning
• Social cognitive theory
− Observational learning
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Classical Conditioning (1 of 2)
• Simple learning
− Neutral stimulus repeatedly paired with second stimulus
− Elicits the response usually brought by the second stimulus
• Example: Bell-and-pad method to eliminate bedwetting
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Classical Conditioning (2 of 2)
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Principles of Operant Conditioning
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Positive Versus Negative Reinforcers
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Behaviorism: Skinner—Punishment
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Negative Reinforcers Versus Punishments
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Applications of Operant Conditioning
• Shaping
− Teaching complex behaviors
− Reinforcing small steps toward the behavioral goal
• Socialization of children
− Parent and child
− Child and child
− Teacher and child
Time-out
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Social Cognitive Theory
• Albert Bandura
− Acquire basic “know-how” through observational learning
− Skills may lie latent
• Child is an active learner
• Intentionally seek out or create environments where reinforcers are
available
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Evaluation of Learning Theories
• Contributions
− Meet the goals of describing, explaining, predicting, and influencing
aspects of children’s behavior
− Principles are abundant in education and clinical application
• Criticisms
− Unclear if learning is only mechanical
− Underestimate the role of biological-maturational factors
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What Is the Cognitive Perspective on Child
Development?
• Focuses on children’s mental processes
− How children perceive and mentally represent the world
• Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
− Cognitive-developmental theory
• Information-processing theory
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Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory
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Piaget’s Basic Concepts (1 of 2)
• Scheme
− Pattern of action involved in acquiring or organizing knowledge
• Adaptation
− Interaction between child and the environment
• Assimilation
− Responding to a new object or event according to existing schemes
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Piaget’s Basic Concepts (2 of 2)
• Accommodation
− Adjusting scheme to a new object or event
• Equilibration
− Process of restoring equilibrium after a period of accommodation
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
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Evaluation of Cognitive-Developmental
Theory
• Criticisms
− Piaget may have underestimated children’s abilities by age
− Cognitive growth may be more gradual than Piaget’s distinct stages
• Contributions
− Different view of children from psychoanalytic and behaviorist
− Strong theoretical foundation for researchers
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Information-Processing Theory (1 of 2)
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Information-Processing Theory (2 of 2)
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What Is the Biological Perspective on
Development?
• Physical development
− Gains in height and weight
− Brain development
− Developments connected with hormones, reproduction, and heredity
• Ethology
− Study of behaviors that are specific to a species
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Ethology and Evolution: “Doing What Comes
Naturally”
• Concerned with instinctive behavior patterns
− Influenced by Charles Darwin, Konrad Lorenz, and Niko Tinbergen
• Prewired—instinctive behavior patterns
− Fixed action patterns (FAPs)
− Influence of prenatal hormones
• Lorenz’s work on attachment during the first year
− Imprinting
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Evaluation of Ethology
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What Is the Ecological Systems Theory of
Development?
• Explains development through interactions between children and
the settings in which they live
• Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917–2005)
− Focus on two-way interactions between parent and child, not just
maturational or child-rearing approaches
− Views the contexts of human development as a series of systems
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The Ecological Systems Theory of Child
Development
• Five embedded systems
− Microsystem
− Mesosystem
− Exosystem
− Macrosystem
− Chronosystem
• Evaluation of theory
− Helps focus attention on changing systems
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The Contexts of Human Development
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What Is the Sociocultural Perspective on
Development?
• Views children as social beings who are influenced by the cultures
in which they live
• Lev Semenovich Vygotsky’s (1896–1934) sociocultural theory
• Impact of human diversity on children
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Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
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Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Sociocultural
Theory
• Research support for
− Scaffolding
− Private speech
• Teachers often discourage private speech due to distraction
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The Sociocultural Perspective and Human
Diversity
• Awareness of diversity among children
− Ethnic groups
Understanding of children’s family values and cultural expectations
− Gender
Understanding of gender role expectations
− Socioeconomic status
Associated with opportunity
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1.3 Controversies in Child Development
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Which Exerts the Greater Influence on
Children: Nature or Nurture?
• Nature = heredity
• Nurture = environmental influences
• Orientation toward nature
− Cognitive-developmental theory
− Biological theorists
• Orientation toward nurture
− Learning theories
• Contemporary view—both nature and nurture
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Is Development Continuous or
Discontinuous?
• Do developmental changes occur
− Continuously (gradually)?
− Discontinuously (in qualitative leaps)?
• Orientation toward continuity
− Maturational theories (behaviorism, Bandura’s social learning theory,
information-processing theory)
• Orientation toward discontinuity
− Stage theories (Freud, Erikson, Piaget)
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Are Children Active (Prewired to Act on the
World) or Passive (Shaped by Experience)?
• For learning to occur, do educators need to
− Motivate passive learners?
− Encourage active learners to explore?
• Perspectives of children as both active and passive
− Bronfenbrenner’s bidirectional influence
− Bandura’s reciprocal influences between children and the
environment
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1.4 How Do We Study Child Development?
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What Is the Scientific Method?
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Naturalistic Observation
• Field studies
− Observations done in natural (real-life) settings
− Control for interference
• Examples of naturalistic observation studies
− Activity levels of 3- to 5-year-olds in preschools
− Motor behavior of Native American Hopi children strapped to cradleboards
− Language development in various countries
− Socialization patterns in diverse cultures
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Case Study
• Account of an individual’s behavior
− Diaries
− Direct observations
− Questionnaires
− Standardized tests
− Interviews
− Other sources of records
• Examples of case studies
− Piaget’s observation of children’s behavior
− Freud’s studies of his patients
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Survey
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Correlation: What Does It Mean to Correlate
Information?
• Mathematical calculation to determine relationships between
behaviors and traits (variables)
• Correlation coefficient
− Mathematical number between +1.00 and –1.00
− Positive correlation
− Negative correlation
• Limitation: shows relationships, not cause and effect
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Examples of Positive and Negative
Correlations
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What Is an Experiment? What Are an
Experiment’s Advantages over Correlation?
• Experiments are used to determine cause and effect
• Experimental research: a method in which one group receives
treatment and another does not
• Independent and dependent variables
− Independent variable: manipulated by experimenter
− Dependent variable: measured results; depends on independent
variable
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What Is an Experiment?
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How Do Researchers Study Developments
That Take Place over the Years? (1 of 2)
• Longitudinal research
− Same children observed repeatedly over time
− Most span months or a few years, not decades
• Drawbacks to longitudinal research
− May lose participants over time (attrition)
− Difficult to enlist volunteers for long-term participation
− Researchers must be patient
− Older researchers may need to rely on younger researchers to continue the
research
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How Do Researchers Study Developments
That Take Place over the Years? (2 of 2)
• Cross-sectional studies
− Children of different ages are observed and compared
− Cohort effect
• Cross-sequential research
− Combines longitudinal (time period) and cross-sectional (cohorts)
methods
− Breaks time span into convenient segments
− Time-lag comparisons
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Example of Cross-Sequential Research
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1.5 Ethical Considerations
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Ethical Considerations
• Which theories of development did you find most challenging, and thus need
to review?
• Which theories of development appealed to you the most? The least? Why?
• What are some ways that you think you could apply certain developmental
theories in your own life, such as in your job or family?
©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 69
Summary
Now that the lesson has ended, you should have learned how to:
• Define child development, explain why researchers study child development, and describe
the history of the study of child development.
• Describe and evaluate theories of child development, including psychoanalytic theory,
learning theories, cognitive-developmental theory, biological views, ecological systems theory,
and the sociocultural perspective.
• Discuss controversies in child development, including the nature–nurture controversy,
whether development is continuous or discontinuous, and whether children are active or
passive participants in their development.
• Explain how researchers study child development, referring to the scientific method, methods
of observation, the correlational method, the experiment, and longitudinal versus cross-
sectional studies.
• Discuss ethical considerations in the study of child development.
©2022 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 70