BIOL448

Lecture # 2
Organisms & their Environment

Physical Environment

Readings: Bowman et al., Chapter 2

 Today’s Outline
• Climate
• Atmospheric and oceanic circulation
• Global climate patterns
• Regional climate influences
• Climatic variation over time
• Chemical environment
• Global annual temperature & precipitation
 Review of the Last Lecture
• Ecology
- Ecological views
- Levels of biological organization
- Earth’s communities
- Scale of an ecological study
- Natural selection
- Ecological processes and functions

• Answering Ecological Questions

- Ecological experiments
- Experimental design and data analysis
- Scientific methods
- Amphibian populations revisited
 Physical Environment
• Physical environment determines where
organisms can live, and the resources that are
available to them.
• Understanding the physical environment is
required to understand ecological phenomena.
• Physical environment must be characterized
by its variability over time, as well as average
conditions.
• Timing of variation, such as seasonality of
rainfall, is also important.
 Climate and Weather
• Climate: Fundamental characteristic of the physical
environment; climate is long-term description of
weather, based on averages and variation measured
over decades.
• Weather: Current conditions – temperature,
precipitation, humidity, & cloud cover.
• Climatic variation includes daily and seasonal
cycles, and large-scale cycles that occur over years
or decades.
• Long-term climate change can be a result of changes
in the intensity and distribution of solar radiation.
• Climate determines the geographic distribution of
organisms.
 Mortality in Piñon Pines
• Drought 2000-2003
• SW USA, New Mexico
• Piñon pine (Pinus edulis)
• Water & temperature stress
• Bark beetle outbreak 2002

• Most trees died by May 2004

 Atmospheric Structure
• Troposphere (the
weather layer) absorbs
longwave radiation;
the atmosphere is
heated from the
bottom.
• It is, thus, warmest near
the bottom, and gets
colder with increasing
elevation.
• Stratosphere (UV
protector) absorbs UV,
heated from the top.
 Earth’s Radiation Balance

• Energy in = energy out; 100=30+70; (45+25+88=158)=(25+29+104=158)

• Half of solar radiation reaches Earth.
• Atmosphere is transparent to shortwave but absorbs longwave
radiation (greenhouse effect).
• It is heated from the bottom by longwave radiation and
convection.
Global Energy Balance and Climate
• Much of the solar radiation absorbed by Earth’s
surface is emitted to the atmosphere as infrared
radiation.
• When water at the surface evaporates it absorbs
energy – latent heat flux.
• Conduction: Kinetic energy is transferred by
molecules in direct contact with one another.
• Convection: Energy transfer by movements of
air (wind) and water currents.
• Energy transfer from the warm air immediately
above the surface to the cooler atmosphere by
convection and conduction – sensible heat flux.
Global Energy Balance and Climate
• Atmosphere contains radiatively active
(greenhouse) gases that absorb and reradiate
the infrared radiation emitted by Earth.

• GHGs: water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide

(CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O).

• Without greenhouse gases, Earth’s climate

would be about 33°C cooler.

• Increases in concentrations of GHGs due to

human activities are (a) altering Earth’s energy
balance, (b) changing the climate system,
and
(c) causing global warming.
 Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation
• Winds and ocean currents result from differences in solar
radiation across Earth’s surface.
• Near the equator, the sun’s rays strike Earth’s surface
perpendicularly.
• Toward the poles, the sun’s rays are spread over a larger
area and take a longer path through the atmosphere.

Latitudinal
Differences in
Solar Radiation at
Earth’s Surface
 Surface Heating and Uplift of Air
• When solar radiation heats Earth’s surface, it warms
and emits IR to atmosphere, warming the air above it.
• Warm air is less dense than cool air, and it rises,
uplift.
• Air pressure decreases with altitude, so the rising air
expands, and cools.
Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulation
• Tropical regions receive the most solar radiation,
and thus have the most precipitation.
• Uplift of air in the tropics results in a low
atmospheric pressure zone.
• When air masses reach the boundary between
the troposphere and stratosphere, air flows
towards the poles.
• Subsidence: the air descends when it cools and
forms a high pressure zone at about 30° N & S.
• Major deserts of the world are at these latitudes.
 Earth’s Atmospheric Circulations
• Air rises and falls in
Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar Easterlies

Polar cells (vertical

circulation). Westerlies

• Circulation cells
Northeast Trades
explain global
distribution of
rainfall.
Southeast Trades
• Earth’s rotation
determines wind Westerlies
direction (horizontal
circulation, Polar Easterlies
Coriolis force).
Thurman & Trujillo, Essentials of Oceanography, 7 th ed., 2001
HADLEY
CELL
 Atmospheric Circulation Cells and
Surface Wind Patterns
• Areas of high and low pressure created by the circulation
cells result in air movements called prevailing winds.
• The winds are deflected to the right (clockwise) in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left (counterclockwise)
in the Southern Hemisphere – the Coriolis effect.
 Coriolis Force
• Atmosphere maintains momentum
relative to Earth’s surface.
• Earth rotates from west to east
- So does atmosphere, but
also moves north and south.
• Earth's rotation transforms straight 1 knot = 1.852 km/h

line motion into curved motion for

an outside viewer.
• Coriolis force explains this
apparent curvature of winds to the
right due to rotation.
• Its magnitude increases with wind
velocity and Earth's latitude.
Surface Wind-Flow Patterns and Sea Level Pressure
• At 30º N & S, air descends more strongly over cold ocean than over land.
• At 60º N & S, air descends more strongly over cold land than over ocean.
• These pressure gradients create geographic variation in prevailing winds.

January
Surface Wind-Flow Patterns and Sea Level Pressure
• At 60º N & S, air descends over cold ocean (high pressure)
and rises over warm land (low pressure).
• Cool equator-ward flow of air on W coasts of continents.
• Warm pole-ward flow of air on E coasts of continents.

July
 Wind-Flow Patterns: North American Winter
• Semi-permanent highs redirect North American winds, such as
cold interior southerly flow from the Canadian high.
• Polar front develops a wave-like pattern as air flows around
lows.

January
 Ocean Circulation:
Major Surface Ocean Currents

• Water of the ocean surface moves in a regular pattern.

• Warm currents are shown in red and cold currents in blue.
 Ocean Currents Affect Climate
• Ocean currents move 40% of “excess heat” from equator to poles.
• Driven by circulation of deep ocean waters.
• Deep water formation occurs near Greenland and in Antarctica.

• 60% of heat transport is carried by atmosphere through storms

that move along pressure gradients.
 Regional Climatic Influences
• Regional climates reflect the influence of the
distribution of oceans and continents, elevation, and
vegetation.
• Proximity to oceans, mountain ranges, and regional
topography influence regional climate, which
influences vegetation.
• Coastal areas have a maritime climate ̶ little
daily and seasonal variation in temperature, and
high humidity.
• Areas in the center of large continents have
continental climate ̶ much greater variation in
daily and seasonal temperatures.
Effects of Landform on Climate
• Climate latitudinal trends are affected
by water, land and mountain spatial
distribution.

• Contrasts in heat capacity of water to

land influence local and continental
atmospheric circulation.

- Sea and land breezes

- Seasonal reversal of winds
- Topographical effects
 Sea and Land Breezes
Diurnal patterns, differential heating between land and sea

http://www.williamolive.com
Seasonal Reversal of Winds: Monsoon

Re-circulation

Land Air
(Warm dry) Sea Air (Cool moist)

Warm Land Cool Sea

http://www.williamolive.com
Topographical Effect:
Rain-Shadow
 Topographical Effects: Slope Orientation
• Slopes facing equator: In Northern hemisphere facing South, in
Southern hemisphere facing North.
• Equator-facing slopes are warmer than pole-facing slopes.
• In valleys, surrounded by mountain slopes, cold air flows
downslope (katabatic winds), but warm air upslope (inversions).

Gliessman, Agroecology, 1998

 Vegetation Effects on Climate
Rough

Smooth

• Vegetation alters Earth’s surface properties

• Rough canopies promote turbulence, increasing air
exchange and evapotranspiration (lE)
•Smooth canopies have large boundary layers, impeding
transfer of water vapour, decreasing latent heat flux (lE),
increasing sensible heat flux (C) and storage (G)
Vegetation Effects on Climate
Vegetation can affect components of surface
energy balance

Rt – r(a) = lE + C + G
• Rt is total solar radiation reaching Earth
• r is reflected radiation, a function of albedo
(a)
• lE is latent heat transfer, driven by
evapotranspiration
•C is convective heat transfer
(sometimes called sensible heat flux)
• G is storage
Vegetation Effects on Climate
Vegetation Feedback on Global Warming

Foley et al. 2003. Front Ecol Environ 1: 38-44

Climate Effects on Vegetation

Foley et al. 2003. Front Ecol Environ 1: 38-44

Seasonal Changes in Climate
 Wet and Dry Seasons and the ITCZ
• In tropics, seasons are marked
by changes in precipitation.
• Zone of maximum solar radiation
and atmospheric uplift – the
Intertropical Convergence
Zone (ITCZ), moves between
23.5°N and 23.5°S, bringing the
wet season with it.
• Temperate & polar zones have
seasonal variation in solar
radiation and temperatures.
• Differences in solar radiation
between summer and
winter increase from tropics
toward poles.
Seasonal Changes in Aquatic Environments
• Aquatic environments
experience seasonal
changes in temperature.
• Oceans and lakes can
become stratified, which
determines movement
of nutrients and oxygen.
• In temperate-zone lakes,
changes in stratification
occur with the seasons.
• In summer, stratification
is most intense; warm
epilimnion lies over
colder hypolimnion;
thermocline is the zone
of transition. Smith & Smith, Elements of Ecology, 2012
 Ocean Structure:
Vertical Profile of Ocean Temperature and Salinity

Chapin et al., PTEE, 2012

 Climatic Variation over Time
• El Niño events are longer-scale variations in climate
associated with a switch (or oscillation) in the positions of
high- and low-pressure systems over equatorial Pacific.
• El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has a frequency of
3-8 years and lasts about 18 months.
• ENSO includes La Niña events, stronger-than-average
phases of normal pattern, with high pressure off the coast
of South America and low pressure in the western
Pacific.
• La Niña usually follow El Niño, but tend to be less
frequent.
• North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) affects climate in
Europe, northern Asia & eastern coast of North America.
• Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) affects climate in the
El Niño Global Climatic Variation

Smith & Smith, Elements of Ecology, 2012

 Global Temperature Long-Term Record
• Fossils of dinosaurs and trees in Antarctica indicate that
climate there was once much warmer.
• Over the past 500 million years, Earth’s climate fluctuated
between warmer and cooler conditions several times.
• Warmer periods are associated with higher levels of
GHGs.
 Temporal Variations in Climate
• Mainly driven by changes in solar input.

- Evolution of sun
- Variations in Earth’s orbit
- Seasonal cycles
- Diurnal cycles

• Changes in surface heat absorption and

heat trapping of atmosphere are now
becoming important (human impacts).
 Evolution of the Sun

Chapin et al. PTEE, 2002

• Solar flux (relative to present solar radiation) received
by Earth since the beginning of the solar system.
 Changes in the Earth’s Orbit
Shape of orbit

Wobble of tilt
Chapin et al., PTEE, 2002

Angle of tilt

Changes in solar orbit causes long-term variations in solar input to Earth.

a) Changes in the occupancy of the Earth’s orbit
b) Shifting tilt of the axis
c) Wobble of the Earth
 Eccentricity
• Earth's orbit around the sun is an ellipse. Elliptical orbit shape,
measured by its eccentricity, varies through time.

• Eccentricity affects the amounts of radiation the Earth's surface

receives at Aphelion and Perihelion.

• When the orbit is highly elliptical,

one hemisphere will have hot
summers and cold winters; the
other hemisphere will have warm
summers and cool winters.

• When the orbit is nearly circular,

both hemispheres will have similar
seasonal contrasts in temperature.
http://eo.nso.edu/dasl/Lessons/Aphelion/index3.htm
 Chemical Environment
• Salinity, acidity, and oxygen concentrations are
major determinants of the chemical
environment.
• All organisms, both aquatic and terrestrial, are
bathed in a matrix of chemicals.
• Composition of atmosphere is relatively constant,
but small changes in chemical concentration in
water (including soil water) have important
consequences for organisms.
• Atmosphere: Nitrogen (78%), oxygen (20%),
water vapour (1%), argon (0.9%), trace gases,
including greenhouse gases and pollutants.
 Chemical Environment
• Salinity: Concentration of dissolved salts in
water.
• Salts influence the properties of water, and
affect ability of organisms to absorb water.
• Salinity of oceans varies between 3.3-
3.7%.
• It varies as a result of evaporation,
precipitation, and melting of sea ice.
• Salinity is highest near the equator, and
decreases at high latitudes.
Variation in Salinity at the Ocean Surface
 Chemical Environment
• Ocean salts consist mainly of sodium, chloride,
magnesium, calcium, sulfate, bicarbonate,
and potassium.
• Salts come from gases emitted by volcanic
eruptions early in Earth’s history, and from the
gradual breakdown of minerals in rocks that
make up the crust.
• Some inland lakes become more saline over
time, reflecting a balance between precipitation,
evaporation, and inputs of salts.
• Inland “seas” in arid regions can have higher
salinity than the oceans – Dead Sea, Great Salt
Lake.
 Dead Sea

http://twistedsifter.com/2012/06/10-things-you-didnt-know-about-the-dead-sea/
 Chemical Environment
• Soils near oceans can have high salinity; e.g., salt
marshes, tidal estuaries.
• Salinization: Soils in arid regions become saline when
water is brought to surface by plants or irrigation, and
high rates of evapotranspiration result in salt build-up.
 Sensitivity of Organisms to their
Environment
• Acidity: Ability of a solution to act as an acid; acids are
compounds that give up protons (H+) to the solution.
• Alkalinity: Ability of a solution to act as a base; bases
take up H+ or give up hydroxide ions (OH–).
• Acidity and alkalinity are measured as pH: –log10 of the
concentration of H+.
• pH of water influences metabolic functions, and
chemistry and availability of nutrients.
• Organisms have a limited range of pH tolerance; pH is
important in freshwaters and terrestrial ecosystems;
in oceans, it varies less as water acts as buffer.
• High atmospheric CO2 may increase acidity of oceans.
 Sensitivity of Organisms to their
Environment
• Water can become more acidic over time as
soils develop; soils contain mineral particles
from the breakdown of rocks.
• Granites generate acidic salts, while other
rocks generate basic salts; basic minerals
leach away easily and soils become acidic.
• Soils also contain organic matter (OM) from
the decomposition of dead plants and other
organisms; plant OM adds acids to soils.
• Acidic pollutants can increase the acidity of
soils and surface waters.
 Oxygen Concentrations
• Except for some archaea, bacteria and fungi, most
organisms require oxygen for their metabolic processes.
• Anoxic (low-oxygen) conditions can promote the
formation of chemicals (e.g., hydrogen sulfide) that are
toxic to many organisms.
• Oxygen levels are important for chemical reactions that
determine nutrient availability.
• Availability of atmospheric oxygen decreases with
elevation above sea level, as the overall density of air
decreases.
• Oxygen concentrations vary greatly in soil and water.
• Rate of diffusion of oxygen into water is slow. Waves and
currents help mix oxygen from atmosphere into water.
Oxygen Stratification

Smith & Smith, Elements of Ecology, 2012

Global Average Annual Temperature

Annual seasonal
temperature variation
Average Annual Terrestrial Precipitation
• Precipitation should be highest in the tropical
latitudes and in a band at about 60° N and S; and
lowest in zones around 30° N and S.
• Deviations from these patterns are associated with
semi-permanent high and low pressure zones.