BASIC MANUFACTURING

PROCESSES
ME-2010
Credits [3-0-0]
Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th Semester,
B.Tech, 2019
No of Cumulative
Modules Topic/Course Content
Classes (Hrs) Classes (Hrs)
Pattern making, pattern materials, allowances , types of
2 1-2
pattern,
Sand casting types, sand cast, moulding procedure, types
2 3,4
of sand, gates and riser (basic design considerations)
Essential properties of moulding sand, core making, types
Module-1 of cores, Essential qualities, core mixtures and binder sand
Foundry Process testing, Mould and core hardness test, fineness test, clay 4 5-8
content test, permeability test, moisture content test, sand
conditioning.
Cleaning of casting and defects in casting 3 9-11

Die casting, precision investment casting, shell moulds,

3 12,13,14
centrifugal casting processes, permanent moulds casting.

Preparation of powder, properties of powder, 2 15,16

Module-3
Powder Metallurgy Fabrication methods & procedure, applications,
2 17,18
advantages.
 Lesson Plan for the Subject- Basic Manufacturing Processes, 4th
Semester, B.Tech, 2019, cont.
MID SEMESTER 2019
Hot and cold working of Metals: Basic Principles of hot and cold working of metals. 1 19
Rolling: Types of Rolling, Rolling equipments hot and cold rolling, General deformation
pattern, Pressure and forces in rolling, Distribution of roll pressure, angle of bite, effect of
rolling on microstructure, Rolling defects, Numericals on rolling load and power
4 20-23
Module-2 required for reduction.
Forgings: Smith forging, Drop forging, press forging & Machine forging, Description of
Metal Working Process Presses and hammers,forging defects. 2 24,25
Extrusion: Direct, Indirect and impact extrusion and their applications, Extrusion defects,
Determination of extrusion force.
1 26
Drawing: Wire and rod drawing, Tube drawing, Process variables in drawing process,
Deep drawing, Determination of drawing force.
1 27
Fabrication Processes: Classification, types of welding joints, 1 28
Gas welding principles, types of flames, quipment,techniques of gas cutting. 2 29,30
Electric Arc Welding: Principles of electric welding equipments and electrodes (in brief), 1 31
Module-4 Principles of Inert Gas Welding. TIG, MIG, sub-merged arc welding. Atomic hydrogen
2 32,33
Fabrication Processes: welding, plasma are welding.
Resistance Welding: Principle of forge welding, spot-seam, Projection, Upset-butt
welding, flash welding. Thermit -Welding
2 34,35
Electro-slag welding, friction welding Brazing, Soldering., Welding defects and
inspection
1 36
END SEMESTER 2019-20
Text Book:
1: Manufacturing Technology, P.N.Rao (Tata Mc-Graw Hill, Publication, Co. Ltd.)
2: Manufacturing Processes, J.Kausish, PHI (2 nd Edition)

Reference Books:
1: Manufacturing Technology: Materials, Processes and Equipment: Helmi A. Youssef, Hassan A. El. Hofy and
M.H. Ahmed, CRC Press, 2015
2: Principles of Manufacturing materials and Processes, J.S Campbell, TMH
3: Welding and Welding Technology, R.Little, TMH, 43 rd reprint, 2014
4: Manufacturing Science, A. Ghosh & A.K.Mallick, EWP
5: Elements of Manufacturing Processes, B.S.N. Parasar, R.K. Mittal, PHI
Fabrication processes
 Fabrication processes
Fundamentals
Joining two or more elements to make a single part is termed fabrication process.
A large number of industrial components are made by fabrication processes.
Ex: aircraft and ship bodies, bridges, building trusses, welded machine parts,
sheet-metal parts etc.
Fabrication is considered as secondary manufacturing process as it uses materials
coming from primary manufacturing processes such as rolling and extrusion.
Various fabrication processes may be:
(a) Mechanical joining by means of bolts, screws (temporary) and rivets (semi-
permanent). Usually holes are made.
(b) Adhesive bonding by employing synthetic glues (thermosetting resins,
thermoplastic resins, silicone resins, and elastomers); does not disfigure the
joins, can join thin sheets, metal-non metals, but not very strong.
(c) Welding, brazing and soldering.
The choice of particular fabrication processes depends on a number of factors:
(d) Type of assembly – permanent, semi permanent, or, temporary.
(e) Materials being joined – steel, CI, aluminum, similar or dissimilar metals.
(f) Economy achieved.
(g) Type of service required – heavy loading, impact loading, high temperature etc.
 Welding processes
Fundamentals
Welding is a metallurgical fusion (or recrystallization) process; here, the interface
of the two parts to be joined are brought to a temperature above the melting point
(or pressure) and then allowed to solidify so that a permanent joining takes place.
It may or may not use a filler.
The strength of the joint is equal or more than the metals joined; extensively used
in structures and also for repair work. Products of welding are called
‘weldments’.
Hystory of welding:
• Late 19th Century
– Scientists/engineers apply advances in electricity to heat and/or join
metals (Le Chatelier, Joule, etc.)
• Early 20th Century:
– welding was not trusted as a method to join 2 metals due to crack issues
• 1930’s and 40’s:
– Industrial welding gains acceptance and is used extensively in the war
effort to build tanks, aircraft, ships, etc.
• Modern Welding:
– the nuclear/space age helps bring welding from an art to a science
 Welding processes cont.
Commercial importance and limitations
Commercial importance:
• Provides a permanent joint.
• Weld joint can be stronger than parent material.
– If the filler material has superior strength characteristics and proper
techniques are used.
• Usually the most economical way to join components.
• Can be done in the field away from a factory.
Limitaions:
• Expensive in terms of labor cost.
• Most welding processes involve use of high energy, are inherently dangerous.
• Welds are permanent bonds, not allowing for convenient disassembly.
• The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are difficult to
detect, these defects can reduce the quality of the joint.
Based on
the type of
joint and
source of
the heat
input, the
welding
processes
are
classified:
Another
classificati
on chart:
 Welding processes cont.
General considerations
Before proceeding to study details of various welding processes, some general
aspects may be discussed:
Types of joints: different types of welding joints are chosen depending on the
weldment being made and the thickness of the sheet metal used. Each of these
joints can have different welding positions.

The interface should be very clean – oil, dirt, paint or grease must be removed
by a rag soaked with organic solvent like acetone. These solvents are to be
allowed to evaporate completely before welding.
 Welding processes cont.
General considerations cont.
It is necessary to have proper edge preparations before welding based on thickness.

There should be no oxide present on the surface. Those should removed by use of
suitable flux (a flux is a material used to prevent, dissolve, or facilitate removal of
oxides and other undesirable surface substances) forming a low-density slag which
floats at the top. Another important specie is the filler material.
 Welding processes cont.
Some definitions
Backing: the material support at the root of a weld to aid in control of penetration.
Base metal: The metal to be joined or cut is called base metal.
Bead or weld bead: a separate material than base metal added during a single pass
of welding.
Crater: In arc welding, it is the depression in the weld-metal pool where the arc
strikes the base metal.
Deposition rate: The rate at which the weld metal is deposited per unit time (kg/h).
Fillet weld: The metal fused
into the corner of a joint made
of two pieces placed at
approximately 90 degrees to
each other is called fillet weld.
Penetration: It is the depth up
to which the weld metal
combines with the base metal
as measured from the top
surface of the joint.
Puddle: It is the portion of the weld joint that is melted by the heat of welding.
Butt weld Fillet weld
 Welding processes cont.
Some definitions cont.
Root: It is the point at which the two pieces to be joined by welding are nearest.
Tack weld: A small weld, generally used to temporarily hold the two pieces
together during actual welding, is the tack weld.
Toe of weld: It is the junction
between the weld face and the base metal.
Torch: In gas welding, the torch
mixes the fuel and oxygen and controls its delivery to get
the desired flame.
Weld face: It is the exposed surface
of the weld.
Weld metal: The metal that is
solidified in the joint is called weld metal. It may be only a
base metal or a mixture of base metal and filler
metal.
Weld pass: A single movement of the welding torch or electrode along the length
of the joint which results in a bead is a weld pass.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas welding
Gas welding, also called Oxy-fuel gas welding (OFW), derives the heat from the
combustion of a fuel gas such as acetylene (high temperature is generated) in
combination with oxygen. The process is fusion-welding process wherein the joint
is completely melted to obtain the fusion. The heat produced by the combustion of
gas is sufficient to melt any metal and as such is universally applicable. The
process is also called Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW).
Characteristics of fuel gases
Heat content, MJ/m3
Gas Chemical Flame T, 0C
formula Primary Secondary Total
Acetylene C2H2 18.97 36.03 55 3100
Propylene C3H6 16.38 71.62 88 2500
Propane C3H8 9.38 83.62 93 2450
Methyl acetylene propadiene C3H4 21.0 70.00 91 2927
Hydrogen H2 - - 10 2390
Natural gas CH4 + H2 0.41 36.59 37 2350
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding
For oxy-acetylene welding, the following two reactions occur:
(1) (inner white cone) partial combustion:
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + 448 kJ/mol
(2) (outer blue envelope) total combustion:
4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 → 4CO2 + 2H2O + 812 kJ/mol
Though more heat is released in the second stage,
since it is distributed in a larger volume the
temperature of the flame is lower.
Oxygen consumption for fuel gases (for neutral flame) with complete combustion

Gas O2 supplied, O2 supplied, O2 supplied,

m3/m3 by torch m3/m3 total m3/kg of fuel
Acetylene 1.3 2.5 1.18
MAPP* 2.5 4.0 1.38
Propylene 3.5 4.5 1.94
Propane 4.3 5.0 2.32
Natural gas 1.9 2.0 2.80

MAPP*: Methyl acetylene propadiene (stabilized)

 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles:
Base metal is melted, Filler metal may be added,
Heat is supplied by various means: Oxyacetylene gas
(or, Electric Arc, Plasma Arc, Laser)
Weld metal protection:
During fusion welding, the molten metal in
the weld “puddle” is susceptible to oxidation.
Must protect weld puddle (arc pool) from the
Atmosphere. The methods:
Weld Fluxes, Inert Gases, Vacuum
Typical fluxes:
SiO2, TiO2, FeO, MgO, Al2O3
- Produces a gaseous shield to prevent
contamination
- Act as scavengers to reduce oxides
- Add alloying elements to the weld
-Influence shape of weld bead during
solidification.
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.:
Inert gases: Argon, helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide
- Form a protective envelope around the weld area
Used in: MIG, TIG, Shield Metal Arc
Vacuum:
- Produce high-quality welds
- Used in electron beam welding
- Nuclear/special metal applications:
Zr, Hf, Ti
- Reduces impurities by a factor of
20 versus other methods
- Expensive and time-consuming
Types of fusion welding:
- Oxyacetylene Cutting/Welding
- Shielded Metal Arc (“Stick”)
- Metal Inert Gas (MIG)
- Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG)
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.: Fusion weld joint

Fusion Zone
- A mixture of filler metal and base metal that has completely melted
- High degree of homogeneity among the component metals that have been
melted during welding.
- The mixing of these components is motivated largely by convection in the
molten weld pool.
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.: Fusion weld joint cont.
• Weld Interface
– The narrow boundary that separates the fusion zone and the heat
affected zone
– This interface consists of a thin band of base metal that was melted or
partially melted (localized melting within the grains) during the
welding process, but immediately solidified before any mixing could
take place
• Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
– The metal in this region has experienced temperature below its melting
point, but high enough to change the microstructure
– This metal consists of the base metal which has undergone a heat
treatment due to the welding temperatures, so that its properties have
been altered.
– The amount of metallurgical damage in the HAZ depends on the
amount of heat input, peak temp reached, distance from fusion zone,
time at elevated temp, cooling rate, and the metal’s thermal properties
– The effect on the mechanical properties is usually negative, and it is
most often the region of the weld joint where failure occurs
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding cont.
Fusion welding principles cont.: Fusion weld joint cont.

• Unaffected Base Metal Zone

– Where no metallurgical change has occurred
– The base metal surrounding the HAZ is likely to be in a state of high
residual stress, due to the shrinkage in the fusion zone
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene flames
Neutral flame: In neutral flame, all the acetylene is burnt releasing all the
available heat; thus, this is the most desirable flame to be used in oxy-acetylene
welding
Carburizing or reducing flame:
Less O2 is provided so that all carbon
is not burnt giving a third phase
between the ‘white’ and ‘blue’ flames
called ‘ intermediate flame feather’. This
C goes to the weld and the metal appears
to boil; causes steel to become hard and brittle.
Oxidizing flame:
Oxygen is excess, complete combustion,
some excess oxygen available which
oxidizes the weld/metal. Temperature is
higher. Used in those cases where the
oxide coating is helpful and acts as a
protection.
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene flames cont.

Flame adjustment for oxy-acetylene welding

Metal Flame Metal Flame
Mild steel Neutral (N) Al, Ni-alloys Slightly carburizing
High carbon steel Reducing Brass Slightly oxidizing
Grey cast iron (N), slightly oxidizing Copper, Bronze (N), slightly oxidizing
Alloy steel (N) Lead (N)
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding equipment
1. Gas Cylinders:
Pressure
Oxygen – 125 kg/cm2
Acetylene – 16 kg/cm2
2. Regulators:
Working pressure of oxygen:
1 kg/cm2
Working pressure of acetylene:
0.15 kg/cm2
Working pressure depends
upon the thickness of the work
pieces welded.
3. Pressure Gauges
4. Hoses
5. Welding torch
6. Check valve
7. Non return valve
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding equipment cont.
Acetylene generator: Acetylene can be generated from a generator and can be
used instead of using acetylene cylinder. It is usually produced by a reaction
between calcium carbide (CaC2) and water which is instantaneous:
CaC2 + H2O = C2H2 + Ca(OH)2

Oxy-acetylene welding torch

Acetylene generator
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding technique
To light the flame, the acetylene valve is opened slightly and lighted with a
friction spark lighter. The flame draws oxygen from atmospheric air and results in
a reducing flame. Then the acetylene valve is opened to get the required flow and
then the oxygen valve is opened slowly till the required flame is obtained. The
adjustment of the flame depends on the type of material to be joined.
The choice of the torch size depends on the thickness of metal to be joined.
Some of the welding parameters for gas-welding of carbon steels
Metal Welding Welding rod Oxygen Acetylene Acetylene Welding
thickness, tip orifice, diameter, consumpti pressure, consumpti speed, m/h
mm mm mm on, m3/h kPa on, m3/h
0.8 0.57 1.6 0.031 7 0.0283 -
2.4 0.92 1.6 or 2.4 0.156 13.8 0.1420 6.10
4.8 1.32 3.2 0.498 27.6 0.4530 4.27
8.0 1.85 3.2 or 4.8 0.935 41.3 0.8500 3.05
12.7 2.37 4.8 1.869 48.2 1.6990 2.44
Except for the outside corner joints, all other joints require a filler metal to be
added to fill the joint. This is done with the help of a welding rod, its composition
depends on the metal to be joined. Thicker metals need a welding rod.
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding technique cont.
The torch tip should be positioned above the metal plate so that the white cone is
at a distance of 1.5 to 3.0 mm from the plate. The torch should be held at an angle
of 30 to 45 degrees from the horizontal plane. It may be:
forehand welding or backhand welding
(1) The Torch: moves in the direction of the tip: moves backwards
(2) Preheats: the metal before the tip melts it: anneals the joint (stress removed)
(3) Bead width: wider narrower
(4) Penetration: shallower deeper
(5) Generally used for: thinner material thicker material
 Welding processes cont.
Oxy-acetylene welding technique cont.
When the welding rod is used to provide filler material, it is necessary to hold it at
a distance of 10 mm from the flame and 1.5 to 3.0 mm from the surface of the
puddle (weld metal pool). This way the rod gets preheated and on dipping gets
melted immediately; it is possible to regulate exact amount of filler metal needed.

Proper edge preparation is necessary to achieve proper penetration. Dimensions of

the ‘root’ depends on the plate thickness
Thicker plates require more than one-pass (movement of the torch once along the
weld length is one-pass); which is known as ‘multi-pass welding’.
 Welding processes cont.
Advantages/limitations of oxy-acetylene welding
Advantages:
(1) Can be used for all type of joints and in all positions.
(2) The equipment is versatile; can be used for cutting, brazing and braze-welding.
(3) Thus, it is useful for general purpose shops, particularly small ones.
(4) Since the source of heat is separate from filler rod, filler metal can be properly
controlled and also the heat properly adjusted.
Limitations:
(5) This welding is somewhat slower and can not compete with other methods.
Oxy-hydrogen welding: In ‘oxy-hydrogen welding (OHW)’, hydrogen
combines with oxygen to generate steam and attain a temperature of 2870 0C.
However, the pool is prone to oxidation, which is controlled by providing slightly
incomplete (less oxygen) combustion. This gives rise to a protective pre-heating
flame surrounding the main flame; the temperature of the flame goes down
making the process slower.

Used for welding thin sheets of steel

and alloys with low melting point.
Oxy-hydrogen burner
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting
For cutting metallic plates, general-purpose shears are used. These are useful for
only straight-line cuts and also for cuts up to a thickness of 40 mm. For (a) thicker
plates and (b) when the cut is to be made along a specified contour (such as
making bevels for edges to be used in subsequent welding), shearing can not be
used; oxy-fuel gas cutting (OFC) is useful. A thickness up to 2 m can be cut.

The oxy- acetylene gas-cutting outfit is similar to that of oxy-acetylene welding

except for the torch tip. Here, the torch tip has a provision for preheating the
plate (peripheral holes) besides the central oxygen jet for cutting.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting cont.
The cutting tip (size) should be properly chosen for the intended application,
depending on the thickness of the plate which determines the amount of
preheating as well as the oxygen jet flow required for cutting.
Tip sizes for cutting carbon steel
Plate thickness, mm O2 orifice dia., mm Plate thickness, mm O2 orifice dia., mm
Up to 3 0.65 100 to 200 3.00
3 to 6 0.90 200 to 300 4.25
6 to 25 1.25 300 to 400 5.00
25 to 50 1.60 400 to 500 6.00
50 to 100 2.25
Various process parameters for oxy-acetylene cutting operation
M thick- Preheat Cut orifice O2 press., C2H2 press., Cut. speed, Kerf width,
ness, mm orifice mm size, mm kPa kPa m/min mm
3.2 to 9.5 0.71 0.81 138 to 207 21 0.36 to 0.46 1.5 to 2.5
9.5 to 19.1 1.07 0.97 207 to 276 34 0.31 to 0.38 2.5 to 2.8
19.1 to 38.1 1.09 1.40 276 to 310 34 0.25 to 0.31 2.8 to 3.3
38.1 to 50.8 0.79 1.70 310 to 345 34 0.23 to 0.25 3.3
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting principles
This cutting process was invented in 1887 by Thomas Fletcher. When a high-
pressure (~ 100 kPa) oxygen jet is directed against a heated (800 to 10000C) steel
plate, the oxygen jet (oxidizes and) burns the metal and blows it away (Melting
Point of oxide is lower and is blown away easily). In principle, after the steel is
heated to its kindling temperature (8700C: when it is of cherry-red color), it gets
readily combined with oxygen giving iron oxide:
3Fe + 2O2 = Fe3O4 + 6.67 MJ/kg of iron.
The other reactions forming other oxides are also feasible:
2Fe + O2 = FeO + 3.18 MJ/kg of iron.
4Fe + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3 + 4.90 MJ/kg of iron.
These reactions are exothermic and generate heat to preheat the metal, which may
not be enough to bring it to the kindling temperature. However, the cutting
process takes care and about 30 to 40% of the metal in the ‘kerf’ (the cut portion of
metal is called ‘kerf’) is simply blown away, while the rest is oxidized.
For complete oxidation of steel, about 0.287 m3/kg of iron is required. Since, a part
of the metallic iron is blown away, the actual requirement would be much less.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting principles cont.
• PIERCING and GOUGING are two important operations:
• Piercing, used to cut a hole at the centre of the plate or away from the edge of
the plate. To start with piercing is not chosen since it may leave a ragged cut
surface or imperfect start. Even when the cut is to start at the middle of a plate,
a ‘lead in’ cut from the edge is preferred to leave the imperfections away from
the cut surface.
• Forcing /Gouging, to cut a groove into the steel surface.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation
To start cutting operation, the tip must be clean, the preheat flames to be properly
adjusted to neutral flame, the torch tip to be positioned (vertically or slightly
inclined) about 1.5 to 3.0 mm above the metal, once the kindling temperature is
reached oxygen jet to be released to start cutting.
The drag (the drag is the amount by which the lower edge of the drag line trails
the top edge) lines indicate the movement of the oxygen stream through the metal.
Drag should be exact, not higher nor lower.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation cont.
Though gas cutting is more useful with thick plates, thin plates (less than 3 mm
thick) can also be cut using oxy-acetylene cutting, by choosing proper tip size and
angle.
For making bevels for edges for subsequent welding, the tip is also placed at an
angle, may use smaller cutting speed, even may use low oxidizing flames to get
quicker preheating.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation cont.
Gas cutting operation can be manual (for general purpose work and for straight-
line cutting), or, by a flame-cutting machine.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas cutting operation cont.
Oxygen cutting is useful only for those materials which easily get oxidized and
the oxides have lower melting point than metals. Thus, it is most widely used for
ferrous materials. It can not be used for materials such as aluminium, bronze,
stainless steel and like metals since they resist oxidation.
Because of large amount of heat is generated, structural transformation takes
place during cutting. The final microstructure depends on cooling rate. For low C
steels (lass than 0.3 % C), no problem of hardening. For steel with higher C, pre-
heating and post-heating up to about 250 to 3000C is necessary. Cast iron is
difficult to cut because its MP is lower than that of iron oxide, and if preheating
and post-heating is not proper then formation of white cast iron and the resultant
hardening at the edges will take place. Presence of alloying elements like Cr, Ni in
ferrous alloys will also affect oxidation and cutting becomes difficult.
Powder cutting: This is a cutting method for oxidation-resistant steels
(Stainless steel). Injection of iron powder along with oxygen jet provides extra
heat due to oxidation of iron powder and facilitates cutting.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding
In welding, generation of heat by an electric arc is one of the most efficient
methods. About 50% of the energy liberated in the form of heat energy. The
electric-arc welding process makes use of the heat produced by the electric arc to
fusion-weld metallic pieces.
Advantages
– Most efficient way to join metals
– Lowest-cost joining method
– Affords lighter weight through
better utilization of materials
– Joins all commercial metals
– Provides design flexibility

Limitations
• Manually applied, therefore high
labor cost.
• Need high energy causing danger
• Not convenient for disassembly.
• Defects are hard to detect at
joints.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding cont.
The principle of generating arc is the flow of current (DC) between two electrodes
separated by a small distance. An arc is a sustained electric discharge through the
ionized column, called plasma, between the electrodes. Electrons move from
cathode and strike the anode with high speed liberating about 65 – 75% of total
heat at anode (a temperature of ~ 60000C is generated). The potential difference as
well as the gap between the electrodes are critical parameters.
Similar principle also works in case of AC with continuous change of cathode and
anode; it gives more uniform temperature than DC.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment
The main equipment in an arc-welding set up is the source of electric power. They
are of two types: (a) Alternating (AC) machines: (i) transformer, (ii) motor or
engine-driven alternator, (b) Direct current (DC) machines: (i) transformer with
DC rectifier, (ii) motor or engine-driven alternator.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
The welding machines can also be divided into two types based on the
characteristics: (a) Constant-current welding machines or droop curve machines
or simply droopers, and (b) Constant-voltage welding machines.
Though the DC arc-welding is more expensive than AC welding, it is generally
preferred because of the control of heat input offered by it. About 70% of the heat
is liberated at the anode in DC arc welding. Using this aspect there are two
arrangements:
(1) Straight polarity or DCEN
(direct current electrode negative):
(2) Reverse polarity or DCEP
(direct current electrode positive):
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
(1) Straight polarity or DCEN (direct current electrode negative):
When more heat is required at the work piece side, such as for thicker sheet or a
sheet of aluminum or copper (with higher thermal conductivity), the work-piece
may be made as anode, liberating large heat near it; penetration is deeper.
(2) Reverse polarity or DCEP (direct current electrode positive):
For thinner materials, where less heat is needed in the weld zone, the polarity
could be reversed by making the work piece negative, which is termed reversed
polarity or DCEP (direct current electrode positive). Here, penetration is small.

DC arc-welding is generally preferred for difficult tasks such as overhead

welding, since can maintain a stable arc..
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
The AC arc-welding set up does not differ much.
The arc-welding machines are normally specified by means of:
- Maximum rated open-circuit voltage: which is the voltage between the output
terminals when no welding is being done; normally fixed at 80 V. In fact, 40-50
V should be enough to start, and 20-30 V is sufficient during continuous
welding. The minimum welding load, Vm: Vm = 20 + 0.04 I (I: load current).
- Rated current in amperes: it is the maximum current in (A) can be supplied by a
welding machine at a given voltage. The preferred current rating as per
BIS:1851-1966, are: 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 and 900 A.
- Duty cycle: It is defined by the American Welding Society (AWS): ‘The
percentage of time in a 10-minute period that a welding machine can be used at
its rated output without overloading’. Normally, 60% duty cycle is suggested.
Indian standard specifies 5 min (for every 5 min transformer operation, 3 min is
for welding and 2 min is for no-load operation. Continuous, automatic welding
machines need 100% duty cycle.
The duty cycle can be calculated:
Required duty cycle = Tα = [I/Iα]2T
where, T: Rated duty cycle, I: Rated current at the rated duty cycle, I α:
Maximum current at the rated duty cycle.
 Welding processes cont.
Electric arc welding equipment cont.
There are two ways the welding can be conducted: (1) Drag and (2) Push methods.
It is also possible to weld with a vertical electrode.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes
The electrodes used for providing heat input in arc welding are of TWO types:
(1) Consumable Electrode: This single electrode functions both as a filler material
as well as heat provider for the base metal to melt and get welded and the
electrode gets consumed. Welding speed is maintained by choosing proper
electrode from a wide range; may be made from steel, CI, Cu, brass, bronze etc.
when consumable electrodes are used, the welding process is called ‘metal-arc
welding’. A consumable electrode may be ‘coated’ (also called ‘stick electrode’)
or ‘bare’.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes cont.
(2) Non-consumable Electrode: Here, the filler material and the electrode are
separate and different; thus, control is separate and better. The electrodes are
usually, carbon, graphite or tungsten; the first two are used in DC-arc
welding, where as, the third one can be used in both DC- and AC-arc
welding. This process is also called either ‘carbon-arc welding’ or ‘tungsten-
arc welding’.

Stick electrodes are normally available

in diameters of 3.2, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 9 mm
and of length equal to 350 or 450 mm.
One of the major concerns with coated
electrodes is the moisture pick-up;
which breaks up to oxygen and
hydrogen during welding and hydrogen
enters into the metal and makes it
porous. Can be avoided either by
adding additives, or , drying the
electrode in an oven.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes cont.
Advantages of having a coating on a ‘coated electrode’:
(1) Shields the molten pool and protects from atmospheric oxygen, hydrogen,
nitrogen pick-up: Under the welding heat inert gases (CO2) evolve and
provide the gas shield.
(2) Coating provides ‘flux’: This flux forms slag which floats and protects the
puddle from atmosphere as well as provides smooth cooling.
(3) Stabilizes the arc: Some elements (different for AC-arc and DC-arc) which
stabilize the arc are added in the coating.
 Welding processes cont.
Electrodes cont.
(4) Improves strength and physical properties: Special alloying elements are
added to improves properties of the weld metal.
(5) Improves metal-deposition rate: The coating is consumed at a slower rate,
thus, helps in concentrating the arc and in reducing heat loss from the tip
making more heat available to melt and deposit in the weld.
(6) Avoids short-circuiting problem:
Usually coatings are insulators,
thus, no short-circuiting problem
while using in narrow grooves.
(7) Providing iron powder in the
coating: This helps in maintaining
contact, increasing penetration,
and metal-deposition rate.
(8) Providing suitable slag: Coated
material may make the slag
viscous or fluid. Viscous slag is
helpful during welding in a
vertical position to cover the
puddle metal for longer time.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW
Manual Metal-Arc Welding, also called Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW), is
the most extensively used manual welding process, which is done with stick
(coated) electrodes. This is (a) highly versatile, (b) with less expensive
equipment, (c) can be used for both simple as well as sophisticated jobs, (d)
can weld in any position, (e) at wide range of thicknesses (3 to 20 mm).
Its main disadvantage is slow speed (1 to 8 kg/h).

SMAW can be done either with AC or DC.

Range of current: 50 to 500 A,
Voltage: 20 to 40 V.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
The electrodes are selected based on the following parameters:
(a) Composition of the base metal, (b) Tensile strength of the joint,
(c) Thickness of the base metal – thinner metal needs lower current setting,
(d) Required metal deposition rate, (e) Type of arc-welding (DC or AC),
(f) Weld position (flat, horizontal, vertical, or overhead).
Electrode sizes based on the metal thickness to be welded
Weld position Metal thickness, mm Electrode diameter, mm Root elec dia, mm
All 3 to 6 3.2 -
Down hand 6 4 -
9 6 4
20 to 25 9 5
Vertical 6 3.2 -
9 to 12 4 3.2
16 to 20 5 4
Horizontal 6 to 9 4 3.2
12 to 20 6 4
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
Codings are used for making the electrodes as per the relevant Indian standards
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
After selecting the electrode size, a choice is to be made of the parameters of the
welding machine to be set. Next step is to have butt edge weld-preparation.
Some of the weld parameters to be used with the electrode E603413
Electrode diameter, mm Current, A Voltage, V
3.2 100 to 150 18 to 22
4 140 to 200 20 to 24
5 200 to 220 21 to 25
6 275 to 350 23 to 27
8 375 to 475 24 to 28
Next step
is to have
butt edge
weld-
Prepara
tion.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
The next step is to start the arcing which is done in two ways:
(a) Side ward scratching motion, (b) Straight down and up motion (tapping start)

After establishing the correct arc length, the welder proceeds to weld.

Travel angle Work angle

 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
After establishing the correct arc length, the welder proceeds to weld.

Butt welds with multipass beads

Bead welding in the vertical position. Horizonta1 groove weld

 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
The major problems in horizontal welding are the undercutting and sagging of
the weld bead. Though welding in any position is feasible, the flat position is
the best since higher weld metal deposition rates as well as good bead quality
can be achieved.

Butt joints in the flat position Undercutting in butt joint welds

 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
An AC arc once started is more stable, but it is not so with DC arc. The
predominant problem faced with the DC arc is the ‘arc blow’, the deflection of
the arc by means of the magnetic fields set up due to the flow of the welding
current.

Effect of Current, voltage and

speed on bead width and depth
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW cont.
It has been observed that adding iron powder to the coating of the electrodes
causes an increase in the metal-deposition rates as well as the optimum current
setting to be used for good welding quality.
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW –Fusion weld zone
 Welding processes cont.
MMAW, or, SMAW–Heat affected zone and microstructure
 Welding processes cont.
Carbon Arc-Welding
Carbon arc welding is the earliest of the arc welding
processes. Electrode: Carbon (soft, can not take high
current) or graphite, arc control is very good, lower
current, higher electrode life, not a consumable
electrode, does not melt - gets red-hot, filler material
is separate, Single electrode welding uses
DCEN, Twin-electrode (can weld thicker
plate to a thinner plate) uses AC.

El.dia W.C.,A, W.C.,A, Max CD M dep,

mm min max A/mm2 kg/h
3.2 0 35 4.48 -
6 50 90 2.88 -
10 120 185 2.34 -
11 140 210 2.20 0.680
20 290 490 1.74 2.722
25 400 750 1.50 -
 Welding processes cont.
Inert-Gas Shielded Arc Welding
In welding, the objective is to make a homogeneous strong joint which needs
complete exclusion of oxygen and other gases. For materials such as Al or Ti
which quickly form oxide layers, this need becomes more prominent. Inert-gas
shielded arc welding processes, where a high pressure inert gas with high purity
flowing around the electrode while welding provides such an atmosphere.
Inert gases: (1) CO2, (2) Ar, (3) He and mixtures of them.
(1) CO2: It is considerably cheaper than helium or argon. But it produces more
spatter and poorer bead shape when used alone. So it is used in conjuction
woth argon (80% argon, 20% CO2)
(2) Ar: Its use started in 1930, preferred because: completely inert, requires a lower
arc voltage, easier to start and maintain the arc, arc lasts longer, heavier
amongst the inert gases (lower flow rate for good shielding – overall
economical), useful in welding thin sheets and vertical, horizontal and
overhead positions, can be used both in AC and DC.
(3) He: Its use started in 1930, also completely inert, withstands higher voltage
(useful where higher heat input is required – thick sheets and Cu, Al – higher
thermal conductivity), can be used with both AC and DC.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG)
Tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding or gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an
inert-gas shielded arc-welding process using a non-consumable electrode. The
composition of tungsten electrode may be: (1) Pure tungsten which is less
expensive but will carry less current, (2) The thoriated tungsten (contain 1 – 2%
thoria – thorium oxide) which is more desirable because it carries high current
and gives stable arc with ease, (3) Tungsten with 0.15 to 0.40% zirconia (zircon
oxide) is in-between.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Inert gas is supplied along the annular path surrounding the tungsten electrode.
Smaller weld torches may not need cooling, but larger ones need cooling water
circulating through other annular path surrounding the electrode.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
The TIG welding process can be used for the joining of a number of materials
though the most common ones are aluminum, magnesium and stainless steel.
The metals can be commonly welded by TIG welding and their choice of set-up
Materials Electrodes Power supply used Preferred Shielding Gas
Stainless steel Thoriated W DCEN Argon
Aluminum All types AC Argon
Magnesium Tungsten (W) AC Argon
Deoxidized Cu
Monel Thoriated W DCEN Argon
High C steel
Cast iron Thoriated W AC or DCEN Argon

Power sources: The power sources used are always of the constant current type. Both
DC (either DCEN or DCEP) and AC can be used. In case of DC, current carried by
DCEN is about 10 times as high as that of a DCEP electrode. The DCEP is sometimes
used to breakdown the surface oxide, specifically in case of Al2O3 (e- move → +ve electrode). In
case of AC, one half cycle of AC does this. AC and DCEN give higher penetration, thus, they
are used for thick metals, where as, DCEP is used for thin metals.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Power sources cont.: The DC power supply used in case of TIG can be either a
steady one or more often a step-pulsed one. The step-pulsed current provides
one low level or background current (when cooling of weld metal is effected), and
the other one is the pick current when welding is conducted.

Welding

Cooling
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Power sources cont.: When AC is used for TIG welding, the current continuously
changes direction, thus, both DCEN and DCEP operates alternately. We can go
for either balanced wave, or, unbalanced wave. During EP half cycle of the
balanced wave, electrons from flat work piece move towards the small-sized electrode tip
which obstructs the electron flow (called rectification), and unstable arc. In an
unbalanced AC welding machine, high voltage or high frequency and low
current is superimposed on the unbalanced wave. This maintains the shielding
gas ionized during the period when the electrode is positive and maintains the
arc continuously – advantage of this system.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Electrode: The tungsten electrode should be clean and completely free from any
kind of contamination such as molten filler material. If the initiation of arc is
by tapping, then there is possibility of metal pick-up. Further, MP of the oxide
of W is lower and hence, shielding gas provision should continue during cooling
of the weld also.
The electrode tip should be prepared for proper welding: For AC welding with
high frequency (AC-Hf) unbalanced machine, the tip should be pencil pointed.
Hf current gets concentrated and arc is formed easily, once it forms, the tip gets
heated and becomes ball shaped. DCEN electrode tip should be conical. Pure W
should never be conical, then the tip will melt and enter into the weld.
 Welding processes cont.
Tungsten Inert-Gas Welding (TIG) cont.
Welding technique: The welding technique used for TIG is similar to that of gas
welding; edge preparation is similar, backing of joints is sometimes preferable,
current supply depends on type of power supply and electrode, the size of filler
rods depends on the base metal thickness.
Current range for TIG welding with Ar gas and different types of electrode.
Electrode Pure W Pure W W+2% Th W+2% Th W+2% Th Zr+W

dia, mm AC-HF*, A DCEN, A AC-HF, A AC, A DCEN, A AC-HF, A

1.0 10-60 15-80 20-80 20-60 25-85 20-80
1.6 50-100 20-150 50-150 60-120 50-160 50-150
2.5 100-160 125-225 130-250 100-180 135-235 130-250
4.0 200-275 360-450 300-450 200-320 400-500 300-450
5.0 250-350 450-720 400-550 290-390 500-750 400-550
AC-HF*: AC with high frequency superimposed. SCB: square close butt, SSV: single side V
TIG welding of Al with AC-HF welding machine and Ar gas with W electrode
M th, mm Filler, mm El dia, mm Current, A Sh dia, mm Arc sp, cm/min Edge prpn Gas, L/h

1.6-6.3 1.6-5.0 1.6-5.0 60-280 10-12.5 32-20 SCB-SSV 425-850

 Welding processes cont.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW)
Metal inert-gas arc welding (MIG) or more appropriately gas metal-arc
welding (GMAW) utilizes a consumable electrode and hence, the term ‘metal’
appears in the title. There are other gas-shielded arc-welding processes utilizing
consumable electrodes such as flux-cored arc welding (FCAW), all of which can
be termed MIG.

Though GTAW or TIG can be used to weld all types of metals, it is suitable for
thin sheets; for thicker sheets, the filler material requirement makes TIG
unsuitable. In this situation, the GMAW comes handy.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) cont.

In GMAW (or
MIG), the
consumable
electrode is in the
form of a wire reel.

This electrode is fed at

a constant rate through
the feed rollers.
 Welding processes cont.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW) cont.
In GMAW (or MIG), the power supply is always of the constant-voltage type,
DCEP, which provides stable arc, increased metal-deposition rate, smooth
metal transfer.

With DCEN, the arc becomes unstable, results in a large spatter. But special
electrodes having calcium and titanium oxide mixtures as coatings are found to
be good for welding steel with DCEN.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer
In GMAW (or MIG) process, the filler metal is transferred from the electrode to
the joint; based on current and voltage used for a given electrode, the metal
transfer takes place in different ways:
(1) Short circuit or deep transfer Deposit rate: 0.9 to 2.7 kg/h
(2) Globular or drop transfer 1.8 to 3.2 kg/h
(3) Spray transfer 2.7 to 5.4 kg/h
(4) Pulsed spray transfer 0.9 to 2.7 kg/h
(5) Rotating spray transfer 6.3 to 13.5 kg/h
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(1) Short circuit or deep transfer Deposit rate: 0.9 to 2.7 kg/h
occurs with relatively low current setting of the order of 75 to 175 A for an
electrode diameter of 0.9 mm. The cycle operates in stages: (a) arc ignites, (b)
wire end melts, (c) short-circuiting, and (d) pinching of electrode end.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
The number of times that the pinching takes place depends on the inductance
(inductance controls the rate at which the short-circuiting current increases) of the
welding machine used and the parameters set. Too low an inductance gives rise
to a very high short-circuiting current and consequently high pinching rate.
With high inductance, the short-circuit current becomes low and results in
lower pinching rate. The effect of inductance, measured in terms of the response
rate (raising rate of current due to short-circuiting, kA/s).
GMAW (CO2) welding parameters for short-circuiting transfer of metal
Wire size, mm Wire feed rate, Arc voltage, V Av.current, A Response rate,
m/min kA/s
0.8 5 18 100 50 to 150
1.2 2.5 19 120 40 to 130
1.6 1.7 20 160 20 to 75

The main advantage in short-circuit metal transfer is the lower penetration

(useful in thin sheets), no spatter (metal is transferred only when electrode
touches the work-piece), less amount of metal is affected (because of low heat),
quite effective in case of poorly fit joints as well as difficult to reach positions.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(2) Globular or drop transfer 1.8 to 3.2 kg/h occurs at slightly higher
current than used in short-circuiting, metal melts at a higher rate, a larger size
globule forms at the electrode tip, falls due to gravity (when gravity overcomes
surface tension), short-circuiting may also occur when globule grows very big,
may also be disturbed due to magnetic pull and cause spatter (which may be
reduced by making a deep crater).

Since the metal is

transferred due to gravity,
this method can not be used
in out-of-position welding
and can only be used for flat
(down hand) welding
position.

Globular transfer occurs

when carbon dioxide is used
as the shielding gas.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(3) Spray transfer 2.7 to 5.4 kg/h occurs when the current rises beyond
that
of the global transfer. Due to rise in current, magnetic pull on molten metal
Increases and the metal drop falls due to this pull (not due to gravity) – thus it
can be used in any position (horizontal, vertical, overhead), the metal is
attracted towards the work-piece due to magnetic pull.
The current at which the metal
transfer changes from globular to
spray is termed as ‘globular to spray
transition current’. This transition
current is different for different
electrodes (low for Al), depends
directly on electrode diameter and
inversely on electrode extension.

Spray transfer occurs only when the

shielding gas contains at least 90%
Ar; it does not occur when carbon
dioxide is used as the shielding gas.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Metal Transfer cont.
(4) Pulsed spray transfer 0.9 to 2.7 kg/h. Because of larger heat input and
deeper penetration, spray transfer is not suitable for thin materials, which are to
be welded in out-of positions. Here, the pulsed spray transfer is useful. During
peak current periods only welding takes place. Due to the extra arrangements,
the machine cost goes up in this process.

(5) Rotating spray transfer: 6.3 to 13.5 kg/h. As the welding current is
increased beyond what is required for spray transfer, rotation spray transfer
results. In this, the end of wire melts and rotates in a spiral or helical pattern,
extending the weld pool to a larger area (poor penetration and large metal
deposit). The ‘rotating spray transition current’ increases directly with the
electrode diameter and decrease with the electrode extension.
The machine settings used for GMAW process

E-dia, SCT, V SCT, A ST, V ST, A SCT, V SCT, A ST, V ST, A

mm M-LAS M-LAS M-LAS M-LAS Al Al Al Al
0.8 15-21 70-130 24-28 150-265 15-18 45-120 22-28 90-150
1.2 17-22 100-225 24-30 200-315 16-20 60-175 22-28 120-210
2.4 - - 24-33 350-600 - - 24-32 220-450
Welding
processes cont.

GMAW –
Metal Transfer cont.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Shielding gases
The gases used in GMAW are: (1) Ar, (2) He, (3) N2, (4) O2, (5) CO2 and mixtures
of them. Each of these have their effect on the formation of the bead and penetration.
(1) Ar: It reduces the spatter, concentrates the arc, gives deep penetration weld,
ionizes easily requiring small arc voltage, has lower thermal conductivity
(conducts heat slowly from the arc to the weld zone – hence, good for thin sheets),
also good for out-of position welding (due to lower V employed).
A large percentage of Ar is essential if spray transfer of metal is desired.
(2) He: It is the most expensive, has better thermal
conductivity (useful for thicker sheets and for
Cu and Al having high thermal conductivity),
filler metal deposition rate is higher (due to
higher current carrying capacity)
(3) CO2: The arc is unstable (very short arc is to be
used to reduce spatter), it is least inexpensive,
only about 7.5% decomposes to CO and O2 under
the arc and deoxidizers such as Al and Si are used,
it is heavy (covers the weld zone well), metal transfer is only global.
(4) The mixtures (Ar + He), (Ar + CO2), (Ar + O2) are used in special cases.
Shielding gases should always flow in a laminar manner without any
turbulence (turbulence causes weld contamination).
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Shielding gases cont.
The mixtures (Ar + He), (Ar + CO2), (Ar + O2) are used in special cases.
Shielding gases that can be used for different materials in welding by GMAW
Metals Shielding gas Metals Shielding gas
Aluminum Ar, (Ar+50%He), He L-alloy-S (Ar+2%CO2), (Ar+5%CO2), (Ar+2%O2),
(Ar+5%O2)
Magnesium Ar, (Ar+75%He) H-alloy-S (Ar+25%CO2)
Cu (deoxidized) Ar, (Ar+75%He) SS (Ar+1%O2), (He+7.5%Ar+2.5%O2),
C-steel CO2, (Ar+2%CO2) Nickel Ar, (Ar+75%He)
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Electrodes
The electrode wire comes generally in the form of coils, in various
compositions depending on the base metal composition, in sizes of 0.5 to 3.2 mm
(very small sizes are costly).
The electrodes to be used for steels, generally have deoxidizers (help in the
reduction of oxidation of the weld metal as well as the porosity) added to it;
therefore, those are costly.
Electrode wires are produced by wire drawing where lubrication is a must.
Any lubricant left affects welding like forming unstable arc and porosity of
the weld. Therefore, it should be properly cleaned. The electrode wire
diameter should also be uniform, otherwise, the arc is likely to wander.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Welding Technique
The variables that affect the weld quality are: (a) the electrode stick-out
(extension), (b) the travel speed, (c) the welding method, (d) electrode
diameter, (e) welding machine parameters (V and A).
A minimum electrode stick-out
of the order of 10 mm to be
maintained to safeguard the
contact tube from burning.
Larger electrode extension
decreases the melting rates (MR)
and increase the penetration.
MR = aI + bLI2
Here, MR: melting rate, kg/h
I: the welding current, A
L: the electrode extension, mm
a, b:constants:(1.6mm wire, DCEP)
a: Al: 5.4x10-3 MS: 8.6x10-3
b: Al: 4.4x10-6 MS: 2.5x10-5
Effect of stick-out on MR also depends on electrode diameter. This effect is much
less for Al, because of its high electrical conductivity
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Welding Technique cont.
The electrode travel speed also affects
the bead size and penetration.
Too low a travel speed causes a large
deposition of the filler metal whereas
too high a speed does not give enough
time for melting the base metal, hence,
less deposition.
Further, different electrodes require
different optimum travel speeds which
are normally provided by the
manufacturers.
 Welding processes cont.
GMAW – Welding Technique cont.
The welding method determines the positioning of the gun with respect to the
base metal. The three possible ways of positioning the welding gun are:
(a) Forehand – the torch points in the direction of electrode travel slanting
backwards from the vertical (heat directed forward, penetration is the least),
(b) Backhand – the gun is slanted in the direction of travel, the arc heat is
directed on the weld bead giving the best penetration. This one is preferred
because of stable arc and least spatter.
(c) Perpendicular – In between (a) and (b).
 Welding processes cont.
Flux-cored arc welding
The flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process is a modification of the GMAW,
where the solid wire electrode is replaced by a tubular electrode containing a
flux at the centre of the electrode throughout its length.
It was introduced in 1960, finding wide usage because it gives closely controlled
and smooth weld bead.

The equipment used for flux-cored arc welding is similar to that used for GMAW.
Since the electrode is not a solid wire, the feeding unit should be properly designed
so as not to put excess pressure on the electrode resulting in its flattening.
 Welding processes cont.
Flux-cored arc welding cont.
The advantages of flux-cored arc welding are:
(a) the flux combines with oxides to form slag which covers the weld bead and
protects it during solidification and cooling,
(b) alloying elements and deoxidizers can be added to the joint,
(c) gives deeper penetration,
(d) many times edge preparation can be avoided.

FCAW is normally used for the

welding of structural steels and
alloy steels, though it is not
limited to these alone.
 Welding processes cont.
Submerged arc welding (SAW)
Submerged arc welding (SAW) is used for doing faster welding jobs; uses larger
(12 mm) welding electrodes, very high currents (4000 A), results in high metal-
deposition rates (20 kg/h), very high welding speed (5m/min), can weld plates up
to 75 mm in butt joint in a single pass (can also be used for thin, 1mm, plates).

Submerged arc welding

The arc is completely submerged (no spatter), flux on melting provides shielding,
slag gives protection, equipment is inexpensive and portable, several types of
fillers can be used; can be used only for flat or down-hand positions (because of
large pool of flux), charging of electrode for arcing may take longer.
 Welding processes cont.
Submerged arc welding (SAW) cont.
The power source can be either
AC or DC. Both constant-V and
constant-A type can be effective.
However, for larger electrodes,
constant-A is preferred. Current
rating in SAW is 2 to 3 times
Higher than that of GMAW.
For larger work, two wires may be
used with two machines, this may
result in arc blowing (does not occur
in single wire) due to interference of
two magnetic fields. This can be
avoided by adjusting the two
machines – one is at peak, when
the other is set to zero current
and vice-versa.
Since SAW is a large volume
process (takes time to cool), water
-cooled Cu plates as backing
are provided.
Welding
processes cont.
The type of edge
preparation and
joint design in
SAW is different
due to large depo-
sition rates.
Variables that
affect the weld
quality are: (a)
electrode dia., (b)
V and A settings,
(c) welding speed,
and (d) width and
depth of the flux
covering.
Submerged arc
welding (SAW)
cont.
 Welding processes cont.
SAW with metal powder additions
Like in SMAW, addition of metal (iron) powders helps in increasing the current,
thereby increasing the metal deposition rate (up to 90 kg/h can be realized).

Magnetic attachment method Forward feed method of

of powder addition a) Principle powder addition a) Principle

b) In use b) In use

Submerged arc strip welding: It is possible to use a continuous strip (of width:
25 to 125 mm) as an electrode in place of the solid wire; large components can be
welded by reducing the welding time by 80%.
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