SUMMATION OF FINAL TOPICS

Course Code :EMAT 214

Course Name : ENGINEERING MATERIALS
ANSINO, ASUNCION, ALSOL, CABIDES, ELEP, GARCIA
 Course Timetable

 MATTERIALS USED IN SHIP BUILDING

 DIFFERENTS TYPES OF BEARINGS

 DIFFERENTS TYPES OF TEST

 DIFFERENT OF DESTRUCTIVE TEST (DT) / NOT DESTRUCTIVE TEST (NDT)

 DIFFERENT TYPES OF FABRICATION

 METAL JOINING PROCESS

MATTERIALS USED IN SHIP BUILDING
Most common materials which are used in shipbuilding:

STEEL
ALUMINUM
GLASS REINFORCED PLASTIC (GRP)
FIBER REINFORCED PLASTIC (FRP)
WOOD
STEEL

• Steel are alloys of iron and carbon. The carbon percentage varying from
0.1% (mild steel) to about 1.8% in some hardened steel.
• Iron has a melting point of 1510 degrees centigrade.

• 4 processes of producing steel are:

1. Open Hearth Process
2. Electric Furnaces
3. Oxygen Process
4. Bessemer Converter Process
STEEL

Pig iron (92-97% Iron, Carbon, Silicon, Manganese, Sulphur & Phosphorus

Killed Steel : it indicates that the metal has solidified and the ingot mold with
little or no evolution of gas. Steel of this type has high degree of chemical
homogeneity.

Rimmed Steel : it is unsuitable for thicker plate, as it contains gas blow holes
near the center of the ingot.
SHIPBUILING STEELS

• MILD STEEL

• HIGH TENSILE STEEL

• CORROSION RESISTANT STEEL

• CAST STEEL

• FORGED STEEL
SHIPBUILDING STEEL

MILD STEEL
• Contains 0.15 – 0.23% carbon
- A reasonably high manganese content.
- Generally used for Hull Construction.
• Has 5 categories in Grade : A, B, C, D an E
- A grade is usually used in shipbuilding.
- Grade B : specified where thicker plates are required.
- Grade C, D and E : possess increasing notch-tough characteristics.
SHIPBUILDING STEEL

CORROSION RESISTANT STEEL

• Too costly for normal ship building.
• Used for the tanks carrying corrosive chemicals
• Due to their cryogenic properties, those can be used for Liquefied Gas Tank
Barriers.(LNG/LPG Tankers)

CAST STEEL
• Steel Frames, Rudder Frames, Spectacle Frames for bossing and other
structural components may be produced as casting.
SHIPBUILDING STEEL

FORGED STEEL
• Forging is a method of shaping metal by heating it to a temperature where it
becomes more or less plastic and then hammering or pressing it to the
required form.

• Large engine crankshafts are forged and can weigh over 300 tones.
SHIPBUILDING STEEL

ALUMINIUM
• Aluminium is lighter than steel.
• With an Aluminium structure 60% of the weight of a steel structure may be
saved.
• Aluminuim has a high resistance to corrosion and is non-magnetic.
• A major disadvantage of Aluminium alloys is higher initial cost and fabrication
cost. It also has a lower melting point than steel.
• Aluminum is used for the construction of Spherical Tanks for the carriage of
LNG.
SHIPBUILDING STEEL

COMPOSITE MATERIALS (GRP/FRP)

Composite Materials combine two or more elements with very different
characteristics to provide a material with good structural capability.
• GRP are mostly used in small boats.
• The disadvantages are: it is labor intensive, dependent on the skill level of
workmanship, is flammable, and loses its mechanical properties above
ambient temperatures.
• The Major advantages of GRP/FRP for small vessels include low wieght,
combined with high strength and stiffness.
Other Equipment and components of the ship

Pump Impeller – aluminium Bronze

Fly Wheel, Engine Block – Cast Iron

Bed Plate – it is the lower most part of the engine and must be rigid enough to
support the whole engine. Bedplate is the foundation of the engine.
Tie Bolt – to hold the bedplate, frame and entablature also known as cylinder
block together.
Crosshead Pin – in two-stroke engine, the crosshead pin connects the piston
rod to the connecting rod.
Boiler – the purpose of the boiler is to produce steam for onboard ship.
Stuffing Box – regular maintenance of the stuffing box will keep it in good
condition. Checking garter spring tension, ring butt and axial clearance and
replacing worn ring are all part of the overhaul procedure.

Piston Rings – alloying cast iron with chromium, molybdenum, vanadium,

titanium, nickel and copper. They are harder from the cylinder liner in which
they run to give them a maximum life.

Main Engine Turbo Charger

1. Gas Casting – cast iron (maybe water cooled)
2. Nozzle Ring and Blades – Chromium nickel iron or Nimonic alloy
3. Compressor Casting – aluminium alloy
4. Compressor Wheel – aluminium alloy, titanium or stainless steel
Fuel injector – also known as fuel valve, must be kept in good condition to
maintain optimum efficiency, an to prevent conditions arising which could
lead to damage within the cylinder. Injectors should be changed in line with
the manufacturers recommendations, overhauled and tested.

Entablature – is the name given to the cylinder block which operates the
scavenge air space and cooling water spaces. It forms the housing to take
the cylinder liner and is made of cast iron.

Two types of Propellers in the field of professionally used ships :

1. Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP)
2. Fixed Pitch Propeller (FPP)
TYPES OF BEARINGS
 Types of bearing

• What is bearing?
Bearing is a device that is used to enable rotational or linear movement while handling stress and reducing friction. It is
also used to support the rotating shaft and confine its motion.

Plain bearing Ball bearing Roller bearing

fluid bearing Magnetic bearing flexure bearing
• Plain bearing
These bearing are one of the most basic types of bearing and consist of a flat surface without any rollers or
balls these bearing have much long lives than others types and have a high load carrying capacity and
generally the less expensive
And to reduce friction, plain bearings like flat wheels and like other bearing are placed between two
surfaces. For sliding rotating oscillating or reciprocating motion these bearing are used these are also
suitable for a wide variety of industrial machinery such as construction and agricultural equipment .

• ADVANTAGE OF PLAIN BEARING

• Large load carrying surface area

• The load carrying capacity is high
• High tolerance for misalignment
• It can handle oscillating or reciprocating
• Ball bearing
These bearings are the most common types of bearing and from inline skates to hard drives they are found in everything's
these types of bearing are usually found in applications where the load is relatively small can handle both radial and thrust
loads
The load is transmitted from the outer race to the ball and from the ball to the inner race in a ball bearing and it only contact
the inner and outer race at a very small point which help it spin very smoothly since the ball is a sphere but the balls can be
deform or squish, running the bearing if the bearing is overloaded
By their circular shape in which many small balls are housed, ball bearings are characterized and while taking both radial and
axial loads off a moving parts they reduce friction

• ADVANTAGE OF BALL BEARING

• With a higher dripping point the bearing uses grease
• To prevent leaking of lubricants these are a better sealing shield
• It has easy bearing replacement and increases motor performance
• It has a cheaper cost for replacement and in the
• Roller bearing
One of the types of bearings that contains rolling element either balls or roller bearing and also known as the
rolling element bearing
The roller is a cylinder in these types of bearing and to handle much greater loads then a ball bearing this
spreads the load out over a larger area. To handle much thrust loading, these are not suitable.

• ADVANTAGE OF ROLLER BEARING

• For mass production it is suitable and production efficiency is high and the quality is stable and reliable
• As compared to the traditional fluid dynamic bearing the axial size is less
• The weight is light and the structure is compact
• The unique bearing design can achieve excellent performance within a large load and velocity range
• Fluid bearing
These types of bearing are designed to take the load off a moving part while also reducing friction but they
don’t contain rolling element or moving balls
They contain liquid and fluid creates a thin layer to which the moving parts exposed which allows it to bear the
load and most fluid bearing contain water or oil and in reducing friction both are effective

• ADVANTAGE OF FLUID BEARING

• These is a full film of oil between the bearing and race component so they have very low friction
• As compared to standard bearing, they have lower wear and longer life
• Since there is less friction and mainly viscous loss to the oil so it should run cooler.
• Magnetic bearing
Magnetic bearing use magnetism to lift and bear loads without creating direct contact and to keep the load stable
they require continuous power point .
These types of bearing have the ability to run without lubrication or in a vacuum and have very low and
predictable friction. In industrial machines like turbines motors and generators they are increasingly used

• ADVANTAGE OF MAGNETIC BEARING

• The minimal friction and wear from load-bearing element because of no physical contract between rotating and
stationary component
• These are maintenance-free, reducing initial costs as well as operating and maintenance costs.
• in harsh environment conditions including extremely low temperatures they can be used
• It provides precise control of the nominal shaft center under load due to high static stiffness
• Flexure bearing
A typical flexure bearing is one part of joining two others and requires repeated bending. The flexure bearing
can have an indefinite life with the right materials and bearing design but some materials fail after repeated
bending even at low loads

• ADVANTAGE OF FLEXURE BEARING

• They are inexpensive and simple
• They have very low friction and are also compact and lightweight
• Without specialized equipment, they are easier torepair
TYPES OF TEST
TESTING MATERIALS

Various test are performed on materials in order to quantify their properties and determine
their suitability for various engineering applications.

The most common stress in these test are :

- Compressive Stress
- Tensile Stress
- Shear Stress

The highest stress value is known as the “Ultimate Tensile Stress” (UTS) of a material.
The material used in the Tensile test is called “Universal Testing Machine” (UTM).
Types of test

• Tension test
Determine how a materials will behave under the application of tensile forces.
Measures a materials strength ductility.
Both end held in clamps attached with sensitive strain gauge.
The test is started slowly by pulling apart both end, value of load deformation and diameter are determined
simultaneously
Recording of both data continues until specimen break or fails.
• Impact test (charpy & izod)
The energy absorbed by a material when it is fractured
There are a number of impact test available the charpy vee-nutch test is used specify
The test is made by properly supporting the specimen and strihing with a pendulum

• Hardness test
Measure a materials resistance to indentation

• Creep test
Creep is the slow deformation of a materials under a constant stress. The test uses a specemen similar to that for
a tensile test

• Fatigue test
Fatigue failure results from a repeatedly applied fluctuations stress which may be a lower value then the tensile
strength of the materials
Cyclic stress is applied
Failure which will take plate as a result of repeated or alternating stresses
• Bend test
Determines the ductility of a material. A piece of material is bent through 180 around a former no cracks should
appear of the materials surface.

• Monotron test
Obsolete due to its inaccuracy
Indentor is used as penetrator to determine the hardness of material

• Brinell test
A hardened steel ball 10mm in diameter is pressed against the surfaces to be tested
3000 kg for hard material
500 kg for soft material the force is maintained for 30 sec then removed
The diameter of the impression in measured BHN=KG.MM2
• Rock well test
A penetration test in which a diamond cone is used for hard material and a hardened steel ball 1/16” in diameter is
used for soft materials
150 kg load for diamond cone
100 kg load for 1/16” steel ball
The depth of impression is measured and the material with greater depth has low hardness number
DISTRUCTIVE AND NON-DISTRUCTIVE TEST
Destructive test (DT)
Is changes the dimensions or physical and structural integrity of the specimen. It is essentially destroyed during the test
Ex. tensile, compression, shear, and Rockwell.

Non Destructive test (NDT)

Does not affect the structural integrity of the sample A measurement that does not effect the specimen in any way
Ex. Radiography, ultrasonic dye penetration test.
• Application of NDT

NDT is commonly used in forensic engineering, mechanical engineering, petroleum engineering, electrical
engineering, civil engineering, system engineering, aeronautical engineering, medicine and art.
Innovations in the field of nondestructive testing had a profound impact on medical imaging, including on
echocardiography medical ultrasonography and digital radiography.

• Different NDT methods

Visual inspection
Dye penetration / liquid penetrate method
Sonic test
Ultrasonic test
Magnetic particle test
Radiography test
Eddy current test
• Objective of NDT

1. To ensure product integrity and in turn reliability.

-to detect internal of surface flaws.
-to measure the dimensions of material.
-to determine the materials structure.
-to evaluate the physical and mechanical properties of material.
2. To avoid failures prevent accidents and save human life.
3. To make a profit for the user.
4. To ensure customer satisfaction and maintain the manufactures reputation.
5. To aid in better product design
6. To control manufacturing processes.
7. To lower manufacturing costs.
8. To maintain uniform quality level.
9. To ensure operational readiness
• Visual examination
Including the use of a microscope or hand lens

• Dye penetrant inspection

Invisible crack, porosity and other defect on the surface of component easily detected by this technique.
Components may be ferrous, non ferrous, plastic glass or ceramic.

PROCEDURE
1. Cleaning of surface.( grease, oil any other materials)
2. Dying of surface
3. Applying dye-penetrant on clean and dry surface it is allowed to penetrate in surface flaws
-Liquid soluble penetrant
-Fluroscent
4. Removing excess penetrant by soft or clean cotton
5. Applying developer on surface this pulls out dye from flaws are revealed by colour of dye. Instead of developer,
fine developing powder or talc powder can be sprinkled on the surface
• ADVANTAGE OF DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION

This test can be applied to almost any type of metals, non metallic, magnetic or non magnetic type
Simple to utilize and control
Result of test can be interpreted fastly
Cost of test is very less as it does not require any instrument or electronic display units
Sensitivity is greater than that magnetic particle tesing

DISADVANTAGE OF DYE PENETRANT INSPECTION

Cleaning of component is must before and after testing avoid rusting
Misleading result may be obtained in case of components with surface film and coating
Only surface defects can be defected
Test in not applicable for powder metallurgical components
• SONIC INSPECTION
Sound is created in the component and from quality of sound, presence of defect is judged.
Eg. C.I Gives a dull sound as compared to steel piece of dropped from certain height on the floor
E.G cups, saucer, earthen pots, coconuts.

• ULRASONIC TEST/INSPECTION
PRINCIPLE
Measure of time required by ultrasonic vibrations to penetrate material of interest, reflect from opposite side or from
internal discontinuity and return to point from where first introduced
Behavior of wave through cycle with regard to time is recorded on CRO screen
By observing and their location

-Two types of ultrasonic testing method

1. PULSE – echo method
2. TRANSMISSION method
• ADVANTAGE OF ULTRASONIC TEST

Better detection of flaws situated deep in metal due to superior penetrating power of ultrasonic waves
High sensitivity, better accuracy and reliability
The equipment is portable and easy to handle
Output of test can be processed by computer which lead to improved result reliability

• DISADVANTAGE OF ULTRASONIC TEST

Due to manual operation, careful attention and highly skilled operation are required
Subsurface discontinuities are more difficult to detect
Couplants are needed for testing
• MAGNETIC PARTICLE (MAGNA FLUX)INSPECTION
It is used to detect various kinds of flaws in ferromagnetic component such as welding's casting, forgings of iron and
steel
Component to be inspected for flaws is magnetized
In dry method of inspection special fine ferromagnetic powder is applied on surface
This test is a very fast method of inspection and often used to test aerospace component and automobile parts.

This test generally used to detect internal cracks like shrinkage cavities, hot tears, zones of corrosion and non-metallic
inclusions

MAGNAFLUX TEST PROCEDURE

1. Cleaning surface
2. Magnetization
3. Application of ferromagnetic powder
4. Observation and inspection
5. Demagnetization
• ADVANTAGE OF MAGNAFLUX TEST

Sub-face cracks be easily detected

Almost any shaped and sized competent can be tested for defects
Instrument are portable and easy to handle
Highly sensitive method to detected small and shallow surface cracks

• DISADVANTAGE OF MAGANAFLUX

Method is applicable only to ferromagnetic materials

Surface plating or thin paint coating affected the sensitivity of the test
After testing, demagnetization is a must
Local heating and sparking is possible during test hence proper care must be taken.
• RADIOGRAPHY TEST

NDT method that utilize x ray or gamma radiation to detect discontinuities in material and to present their images on
recording medium.
This includes x ray gamma rays and radioisotopes
This method is used to check internal crack detect in material which are made by casting welding forging.
Nowadays radiography techniques are finding more extensive applications in the field of physical metallurgy and in the
treatment of various diseases
Rays are absorbed by the materials through which they are passed in the proportion of their density. The rays after
passing through the component, show a picture on a fluorescent screen or a photographic plate.
The cracks blow holes and cavities appear lighter whereas inclusion of impurities appear darker than the metal
component
Developed photographic film show lighter and darker areas to represent the radiograph of defects in the component
• ADVANTAGE OF RADIOGRAPHY

X-ray radiography is highly sensitive, fast method of finding detect

X-ray radiography is suitable for various application due to its adjustable energy level
Gamma ray radiography has high penetrating power hence can be used for more denser and thicker materials
A number of sample can be inspected at a time by gamma ray radiography

• DISADVANTAGE OF RADIOGRAPHY TEST

X-ray radiography can be applied for thinner components due to its less penetrating power
X-ray radiography allows only one component to be tested at a time
X-ray radiography involves high initial cost
X-ray gamma ray radiography hazardous to living beings
Trained operator are required.
TYPES OF FABRICATION
WHAT IS METAL FABRICATION?

Metal fabrication is a broad term referring to any process that cults, shapes, or mold metals
into a finals product. Instead of an end product being assemble from ready made component
fabrication creates an end product from raw or semi finished materials

TYPES OF METAL FABRICATION

-CASTING -CUTTING
-DRAWING -FOLDING
-FORGING -EXTRUSION
-MACHINING -PUNCHING
-STAMPING -WELDING
 Before choosing a Fabricator, you must see to it that they have the
following :
Experience – Custom fabrication that have been operating for a long time of
have a well established record of providing good service.
Industries Served – it can be helpful to note which industries, as well as the
sort of product or process it specifically focuses on.
Resources – CNC machines maybe the best option for a finely-detailed
project, but manual machines may better suit a project with a tight budget.
Production Type – the size of a production run, whether short or long term an
low of high volume, should be one of the adequate custom fabrication
service.
Stock Materials – finally, it is important to ensure that a fabricator either
already has or can form the specific metal that will be used for a product. If
they have a specific metal supplier they use.
 TYPES OF METAL WORKING

SHEET METAL CUTTING SHEET METAL FORMING

PIERCING DRAWING
PUNCHING DEEP DRAWING
BLACKING BENDING
PERFORMING FORMING
SLITTING COINING
LANCING EMBOSSING
NOTCHING
• CASTING

Process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold where it solidifies in the shape of the
mold cavity .The term casting also applies to the part made in the process
• STEPS IN CASTING
• Melt the metal
• Pour it into mold
• Let it freeze

• APPLICATION OF CASTING PROCESS ( typical application of sand casting)

• CYLINDER LINER
• PISTON
• MACHINE TOOL LOADS
• PISTON RING
• BELLS MILL ROLLETS
• FORGING
Uses compressive force to shape metal, a hammer or die strikes the metal work piece until the metal work piece
until the desired shape is formed

• APPLICATION OF FORGING
• ENGINE PARTS LIKE CRANKSHAFT, CONNECTING RODS, ROOTER ARM

• MACHINING
Refer to the process of shaping metal the unwanted materials from it. This process can be performed in a
variety of ways
• TYPES OF MACHINING PROCESSES
• DRILLING
• TURNING
• MILLING
METAL JOINING PROCESS
• WELDING
It is process of joining of two metallic parts together by heating them to a plastic or semi molten state, with ir
without the application of a pressure and with or without filler material
• Heat obtained from electric energy, combustion of gases chemical reaction
• Application of pressure
• Filler materials(welding rod)

CLASSIFICATION OF WELDING PROCESS

PRESSURE ( PLASTIC) WELDING NON PRESSURE (FUSION) WELDING

ELECTRIC ARC WELDING

GAS WELDING
NON PRESSURE THERMIT WELDING
• ADVATAGE OF WELDING
These are processes that can be performed manually semi automatically or completely automatically
Continues weld provide fluid tightness(so welding is the process of choices for fabricating pressure vessels)
Welding better than must other joining processes can be performed remotely in hazardous environment ( e.g.
underwater, in areas of radiation in outer space using robots)
Weld can be effectively used for producing complicated structure

• Brazing
Brazing is the process of joining two work pieces, made of similar or dissimilar materials, by heating them to
a specified temperature above 450 degree C. but below the melting point temperature of work piece and non
ferrous filler materials(alloy of copper, silver, nickel)

• ADVANTAGE OF BRAZING
Can join large variety of dissimilar metals
Non metal can be joined
Produce pressure tight and corrosion resistance joints
Good mas production
SOLDERING

Soldering is the process of joining two work pieces, made of similar of dissimilar materials, by
heating them to a specified temperature below 450 degrees centigrade using filler material.( tin
deal alloy, alloy of antimony, zinc and aluminum)