Engine

An engine is motor which

converts chemical energy of
a fuel into the mechanical
energy
INTERNAL-COMBUSTION
ENGINES
 INTERNAL-COMBUSTION ENGINES

In a steam power plant, heat transfer requires

medium which limit on the temperature of heat
absorption.

In an internal-combustion engine, High

temperatures are internal, and do not involve
heat-transfer surfaces.
 Gas Power Cycles
 In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a
gas throughout the entire cycle.
 Spark-ignition engines, diesel engines, and
conventional gas turbines are familiar
examples.
 In all these engines, energy is provided by
burning a fuel within the system boundaries
 That is, they are internal combustion engines.
 Burning of fuel within the internal-combustion
engine complicates thermodynamic analysis.
 Moreover, fuel and air flow steadily into an
internal-combustion engine, and combustion
products flow steadily out of it; no working
medium undergoes a cyclic process, as does
steam in a steam power plant.
 However, for making simple analyses, one
imagines cyclic engines with air as the working
fluid, equivalent in performance to actual
internal-combustion engines.
 Gas Power Cycles
Working fluid closely resembles air at all times.
Internal combustion engines operate on a
mechanical cycle (the piston returns to its starting
position at the end of each revolution)
Not a complete thermodynamic cycle.
An open cycle.
In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at
the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated.
 AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously
circulates in a closed loop and always behaves
as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the cycle are
internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-
addition process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-
rejection process that restores the working
fluid to its initial state.
The idealizations and simplifications commonly
employed in the analysis of power cycles can be
summarized as follows:
1.The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not experience
any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices
such as heat exchangers.
2.All expansion and compression processes take
place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3.The pipes connecting the various components
of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer
through them is negligible.
 Classification of I.C. Engines
The internal combustion engines may be classified in the
following ways:
1. According to the type of fuel used
a) Petrol engines, b) Diesel engines, and c) Gas engines.
2. According to the method of igniting the fuel
a) Spark ignition engines, and b) Compression ignition
engines.
3. According to the number of strokes per cycle
a) Four stroke cycle engines, and b) Two stroke cycle
engines.
4. According to the cycle of operation
a) Otto cycle engines, b) Diesel cycle engines, and c) Dual
cycle engines.
 Classification of I.C. Engines
5. According to the speed of the engine
a) Slow speed engines, b) Medium speed engines, and
c) High speed engines.
6. According to the cooling system
a) Air-cooled engines, and b) Water-cooled engines.
7. According to the method of fuel injection
a) Carburettor engines, and b) Air injection engines.
8. According to the number of cylinders
a) Single cylinder engines, and b) Multi-cylinder engines.
Constructional details of I.C. Engines
A cross-section of an air-cooled I.C. engine with principal parts is
shown in Fig. (Air-cooled I.C. engine).
A. Parts common to both Petrol and Diesel engine:
1. Cylinder, 2. Cylinder head, 3. Piston,
4. Piston rings, 5. Gudgeon pin, 6. Connecting rod,
7. Crankshaft, 8. Crank, 9. Engine bearing,
10. Crank case. 11. Flywheel, 12. Governor,
13. Valves and valve operating mechanism.
B. Parts for Petrol engines only:
1. Spark plug, 2. Carburettor, 3. Fuel pump.
C. Parts for Diesel engine only :
1. Fuel pump, 2. Injector.
Fig. Air-cooled I.C. engine
DETAILED VIEW OF THE COMPONENTS
CRANKSHAFT
– Singular costliest item.
– Medium of transforming reciprocating motion to
rotary motion.
– Balance weights can be either bolted up or
welded.
CAM SHAFT
– Performs the vital role of opening & closing inlet &
exhaust valves.
– Allow timely injection of fuel inside the cylinder.
– Usually 3 cams for each cylinder-
 2 outer cams for exhaust & inlet valves
 1 central cam for fuel injection.
PISTON
– Compresses the air to required pressure &
temperature
– Receives the thrust of expanding gases &
transmits the force through connecting rod.
– With the help of piston rings, prevents
leakage of gas from combustion chamber.
 AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING
ENGINES
 The reciprocating engine has proved to be very
versatile and to have a wide range of applications.
For example, automobiles, trucks, light aircraft,
ships, and electric power generators.

 The basic components of a reciprocating engine are

shown in Fig. The piston reciprocates in the cylinder
between two fixed positions called the top dead
center (TDC)—the position of the piston when it
forms the smallest volume in the cylinder.
 AN OVERVIEW OF
RECIPROCATING ENGINES
The bottom dead center (BDC)— the position
of the piston when it forms the largest volume
in the cylinder.
The distance between the TDC and the BDC is
the largest distance that the piston can travel in
one direction, and it is called the stroke of the
engine.
The diameter of the piston is called the bore.
Reciprocating engines are classified as spark-ignition
(SI) engines or compression-ignition (CI) engines,
depending on how the combustion process in the
cylinder is initiated.
In SI engines, the combustion of the air–fuel mixture
is initiated by a spark plug.
In CI engines, the air–fuel mixture is self-ignited.

We discuss the Otto and Diesel cycles, which are the

ideal cycles for the SI and CI reciprocating engines,
respectively.
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition
reciprocating engines. It is named after Nikolaus A.
Otto, who built a successful four-stroke engine in
1876 in Germany.
In most spark-ignition engines, the piston executes
four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles) within
the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two
revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle. These
engines are called four-stroke internal combustion
engines.
 The minimum volume formed in the cylinder
when the piston is at TDC is called the
clearance volume.
 The volume displaced by the piston as it
moves between TDC and BDC is called the
displacement volume.
 The ratio of the maximum volume formed in
the cylinder to the minimum volume is called
the compression ratio r of the engine:
 Actual Otto engine cycle on PV
Diagram
Intake stroke at essentially constant
pressure, during which a piston
moving outward draws a fuel air
mixture into a cylinder. This is
represented by line 0 ---1

During the second stroke (1 -- 2 --3),

all valves are closed, and the fuel air
mixture is compressed, approximately
adiabatically along line segment 1 -- 2;
shortly before the piston reaches its
highest position (TDC), the spark plug
fires and the mixture ignites,
increasing the pressure and
temperature of the system.
combustion occurs so rapidly that the volume remains
nearly constant while the pressure rises along line segment
2 --3.
It is during the third stroke (3 – 4 -- 1) that work is
produced. The high-temperature, high-pressure products
of combustion expand, approximately adiabatically along
line segment 3 -- 4; the exhaust valve then opens and the
pressure falls rapidly at nearly constant volume along line
segment 4 -- 1.

During the fourth or exhaust stroke (line 1 -- 0), the piston

pushes the remaining combustion gases (except for the
contents of the clearance volume) from the cylinder.
Ideal Otto engine cycle on PV
Diagram
Two Stroke Engine
 Two Stroke Engine
In two-stroke engines, all four functions described
above are executed in just two strokes: the power
stroke and the compression stroke. In these engines,
the crankcase is sealed, and the outward motion of
the piston is used to slightly pressurize the air–fuel
mixture in the crankcase.
Also, the intake and exhaust valves are replaced by
openings in the lower portion of the cylinder wall
The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient
than their four-stroke counterparts because of the
incomplete expulsion of the exhaust gases and the
partial expulsion of the fresh air–fuel mixture with the
exhaust gases.

However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive,

and they have high power-to-weight and power-to-
volume ratios, which make them suitable for
applications requiring small size and weight such as
for motorcycles, and lawn mowers.
Thermal Efficiency of Ideal Otto Cycle
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle
increases with both the compression ratio and the
specific heat ratio of working fluid.
This is also true for actual spark-ignition internal
combustion engines.
For a given compression ratio, the thermal efficiency
of an actual spark-ignition engine is less than that of
an ideal Otto cycle because of the irreversibilities,
such as friction, and other factors such as incomplete
combustion.
At high compression ratios, air fuel mixture reaches
its auto ignition temperature.(temperature at which
fuel ignites without the help of spark).
Premature ignition of fuel is called auto ignition,
produces an audible noise called engine knock.
So high compression ratios are used in spark ignition
engines.
Gasoline blend that have good anti-knocking
characteristics, such as gasoline with tetraethyl lead.
This addition is done in 1920’s . Inexpensive method
of raising octane rating, which is the measure of
engine knock resistance of the fuel.
 High Octane Fuels
Mixture of Iso- Butane and heptane, Hexadecane, n-
octane are some example of high octane fuels.
Also, owing to the improvements in other areas
(reduction in overall automobile weight, improved
aerodynamic design, etc.), today’s cars have better
fuel economy.
The second parameter affecting the thermal efficiency
of an ideal Otto cycle is the specific heat ratio k. For a
given compression ratio, an ideal Otto cycle using a
monatomic gas (such as argon or helium, k 1.667) as
the working fluid will have the highest thermal
efficiency.
The specific heat ratio k, and thus the thermal
efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle, decreases as the
molecules of the working fluid get larger. At room
temperature it is 1.4 for air, 1.3 for carbon dioxide,
and 1.2 for ethane. The thermal efficiencies of actual
spark-ignition engines range from about 25 to 30
percent.
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE
FOR COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating
engines. The CI engine, first proposed by Rudolph
Diesel in the 1890s, is very similar to the SI engine
discussed in the last section, differing mainly in the
method of initiating combustion.
In spark-ignition engines (also known as gasoline
engines), the air–fuel mixture is compressed to a
temperature that is below the auto ignition
temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process
is initiated by firing a spark plug.
In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is
compressed to a temperature that is above the auto
ignition temperature of the fuel, and combustion
starts on contact as the fuel is injected into this hot
air. Therefore, the spark plug and carburetor( is a
device that blends air and fuel for an internal
combustion engine) are replaced by a fuel injector in
diesel engines.

Diesel engines can be designed to operate at much

higher compression ratios, typically between 12 and
24.
when both cycles operate on the same compression ratio.
 Efficiency
For otto Cycle

For Diesel Cycle

Thermal efficiencies of large diesel engines range
from about 35 to 40 percent.
The higher efficiency and lower fuel costs of diesel
engines make them attractive in applications
requiring relatively large amounts of power, such as in
locomotive engines, emergency power generation
units, large ships, and heavy trucks.
 JET ENGINES; ROCKET ENGINES
In the power cycles so far considered the high-
temperature, high-pressure gas expands in a turbine
(steam power plant, gas turbine) or in the cylinders of
an Otto or Diesel engine with reciprocating pistons. In
either case, the power becomes available through a
rotating shaft.
Another device for expanding the hot gases is a
nozzle. Here the power is available as kinetic energy
in the jet of exhaust gases leaving the nozzle. The
entire power plant, consisting of a compression
device and a combustion chamber, as well as a nozzle,
is known as a jet engine.
Since the kinetic energy of the exhaust gases is
directly available for propelling the engine and its
attachments, jet engines are most commonly used to
power aircraft.
Since the air striking the engine has kinetic energy
(with respect to the engine), its pressure may be
increased in a diffuser.
The turbojet engine takes advantage of a diffuser to
reduce the work of compression. The compressor
completes the job of compression, and then the fuel
is injected and burned in the combustion chamber.
The hot combustion-product gases first pass through
a turbine where the expansion provides just enough
power to drive the compressor The remainder of the
expansion to the exhaust pressure is accomplished in
the nozzle. Thus, net work output of jet propulsion
cycle is zero.
Here, the velocity of the gases with respect to the
engine is increased to a level above that of the
entering air. This increase in velocity provides a thrust
(force) on the engine in the forward direction.
The turbojet power plant
 Rocket Engine
A rocket engine differs from a jet engine in that the
oxidizing agent is carried with the engine. Instead of
depending on the surrounding air for burning the fuel,
the rocket is self contained.
This means that the rocket can operate in a vacuum
such as in outer space. In fact, the performance is
better in a vacuum, because no 'thrust' is required to
overcome friction forces.
In rockets burning liquid fuels the oxidizing agent
(e.g., liquid oxygen) is pumped from tanks into the
combustion chamber. Simultaneously, fuel (e.g.,
hydrogen, kerosene) is pumped into the chamber and
burned. The combustion takes place at a constant
high pressure and produces high-temperature
product gases that are expanded in a nozzle.
In rockets burning solid fuels the fuel (organic
polymers) and oxidizer (e.g., ammonium perchlorate)
are contained together in a solid matrix and stored at
the forward end of the combustion chamber.
A solid-fuel rocket requires no compression work, and
in a liquid-fuel rocket the compression energy is
small, since the fuel and oxidizer are pumped as
liquids.
Liquid-fuel rocket engine
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another
way: closed and open cycles.

In closed cycles, the working fluid is returned to

the initial state at the end of the cycle and is re-
circulated.

In open cycles, the working fluid is renewed at the

end of each cycle instead of being re-circulated.
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the
cylinder to the minimum (clearance) volume is called
the compression ratio r of the engine.

Efficiency of Otto cycle is given by

Cutoff Ratio rc:
The ratio of the cylinder volumes after and before the
combustion process.

Efficiency of diesel engine is given by

 An Open-cycle Gas-turbine
Engine
•Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle.
•Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the
compressor, where its temperature and pressure are raised.
•The high pressure air proceeds into the combustion chamber,
where the fuel is burned at constant pressure.
•The resulting high-temperature gases then enter the turbine,
where they expand to the atmospheric pressure while
producing power.
•The exhaust gases leaving the turbine are thrown out (not
recirculated), causing the cycle to be classified as an open
cycle.
An Open-cycle Gas-turbine
Engine
 BRAYTON CYCLE
THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR GAS
TURBINE ENGINES
 A Closed-cycle Gas-turbine Engine
The open gas-turbine cycle described above can be modeled
as a closed cycle by utilizing the air-standard assumptions.

The ideal cycle that the working fluid undergoes in this

closed loop is the Brayton cycle, which is made up of four
internally reversible processes:

1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)

2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
A Closed-cycle Gas-turbine
Engine
The T-s and P-v diagrams of an
ideal Brayton cycle
 BRAYTON CYCLE

Under the cold-air-standard

assumptions, the thermal efficiency
of an ideal Brayton cycle depends
on the pressure ratio of the gas
turbine and the specific heat ratio
of the working fluid. The thermal
efficiency increases with both of
these parameters
 Assignment

Example number 9.2 part a, b and c

9.3 part a and b , 9.5