Chapter Three

Leveling
Definitions and principles
• In surveying three basic quantities are measured Distance,
Height and Angle or direction. levelling is the name given to the
method used for determining heights or elevation. Leveling is
the general term applied to any of the various processes by
which elevations of points or differences in elevation are
determined from Some reference line or surface called datum.

• Datum is a reference point or surface against which position

measurements are taken.
Cont…
• There are two types of datum surfaces, Horizontal datum surface
and vertical datum surface.

• Horizontal datums are used for describing a point on, above or

below the earth's surface, in latitude and longitude or another
coordinate system like X & Y.

• Vertical datums are used to measure elevations or underwater

depths. Vertical datums are either tidal, based on sea levels,
gravimetric, based on a geoid, or geodetic, based on the same
ellipsoid models of the earth used for computing horizontal
datums.
Cont…

• In common usage, elevations are often cited in height above

mean sea level; this is a widely used tidal datum. Mean Sea Level
(MSL) is a tidal datum which is described as the arithmetic mean
of the hourly water elevation taken over a specific 19 years cycle.
This definition averages out tidal highs and lows due to the
gravitational effects of the sun and the moon.

• MSL is defined as the zero elevation for a local area. However,

zero elevation as defined by one country is not the same as zero
elevation defined by another (because MSL is not the same
everywhere). Which is why locally defined vertical datums differ
from one another.
Different Terminology in
Leveling
•Elevation: ‐ Elevation is the vertical distance of a points on, above or
below on assumed datum (level surface).
•Level surface: is a surface which is everywhere perpendicular to the
direction of the force of gravity. An example is the surface of a
completely still lake.
•Level datum: is an arbitrary level surface to which elevations are
referred. The most common surveying datum is mean sea-level (MSL).
•Reduced Level (RL): is the vertical distance between a survey
point and the adopted level datum.
•Bench Mark (BM): is the term given to a definite, permanent
accessible point of known height above a datum to which the
height of other points can be referred.
• Turning Point (TP): are points of measurement which are used to
carry the measurements forward in a run. Each one will be read
first as a foresight, the instrument position is changed, and then it
will be read as a backsight.
• Back Sight (BS): is the reading on a rod held on a point of known
or assumed elevation. This reading is used to compute the height
of instrument (HI), defined as the vertical distance from datum to
the instrument line of sight.
• Fore Sight (FS): is the last staff reading on points whose elevation
is to be determined as a turning point or on completion of the
survey operations.
• Intermediate Sight (IS): any staff reading taken other than BS and
FS on points at unknown elevation from the same set up of the
instrument. Any number of IS can be taken b/n BS & FS.
Uses of Levelling
•Levelling is a vital operation in producing necessary data for mapping,
engineering design, and construction. Leveling results are used for:
Design highways, railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other
facilities having grade lines that best conform to existing topography;
Lay out construction projects according to planned elevations;
Calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials;
Investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
Develop maps showing general ground configurations; and
Study earth subsidence and crustal motion.
METHODS FOR DETERMINING DIFFERENCES
IN ELEVATION
• Differences in elevation have traditionally been determined by
taping, barometric leveling, indirectly by trigonometric leveling
and differential leveling.
• Measuring Vertical Distances by Taping or Electronic Methods
This method is used for measure
simple height determination, like
floor height.
Barometric Leveling

• The barometer, an instrument

that measures air pressure,
can be used to find relative
elevations of points on the
Earth’s surface since a change
of approximately 1000 ft in
elevation will correspond to a
change of about 1 in. of
mercury (Hg) in atmospheric
pressure.
Trigonometric Leveling
• The difference in elevation between two points can be
determined by measuring the inclined or horizontal distance
between them and the zenith angle or the altitude angle to
one point from the other.
• If slope distance S and zenith angle (z) or altitude angle (α)
between C and D are observed, then V, the elevation difference
between C and D, is
V = S cos z Or V = S cos z
• If horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is
V = H cot z or V = H tan α
• The difference in elevation between points A and B is given by
∆elev = hi + V- r
where: where hi is the height of the instrument above point A
and r the reading on the rod held at B when zenith angle z
or altitude angle α is read.
EQUIPMENT FOR DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
• In order to undertake differential leveling the following equipment
are commonly used:
1. Levels: is required to define the horizontal plane.
Class of levels: dumpy levels, tilting levels, automatic levels, and
digital levels.
Common Component:
• Telescopes: objective lens, negative lens, Reticle(Cross hair) and
Eyepiece
• Level Vials: are used to orient many different surveying
instruments with respect to the direction of gravity. There are
two basic types: the tube vial and the circular or so-called “bull’s-
eye”.
2. Tripods: Leveling instruments, whether tilting, automatic, or
digital, are all mounted on tripods. The legs are made of wood
or metal.
3. Level rods: They are made of wood, fiberglass, or metal and
have graduations in feet and decimals, or meters and decimals.
Parts of Automatics Level
Tripod and Level rod
DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING
• This is the most commonly employed method, a telescope with
suitable magnification is used to read graduated rods held on
fixed points. A horizontal line of sight within the telescope is
established by means of a level vial or automatic compensator.

• It is the process of determining the difference in elevation

between two or more points some distance apart. It requires a
series of set ups of the instrument along a general route and,
for each set up, a rod reading on to the point of known
elevation followed by forward to a point of unknown elevation
are taken.
Procedure

• An instrument is set up approximately halfway between BM

Rock and point X. Assume the elevation of BM Rock is known to
be 820.00 ft. After leveling the instrument, a backsight (BS)
taken on a rod held on the BM gives a reading of 8.42 ft. This
reading is used to compute the height of instrument (HI),
defined as the vertical distance from datum to the instrument
line of sight. Direction of the sight—whether forward,
backward, or sideways—is not important. Adding the backsight
8.42 ft to the elevation of BM Rock, 820.00, gives an HI of
828.42 ft.
• If the telescope is then turned to bring into view a rod held on
point X foresight (FS) is obtained. In this example, it is 1.20 ft.
A foresight (FS) is defined as the rod reading on a point whose
elevation is desired. Subtracting the foresight, 1.20 ft, from the
HI, 828.42, gives the elevation of point X as 827.22 ft.
• Differential leveling theory and applications can thus be
expressed by two equations, which are repeated over and over.
HI = Elev(bm) + BS
and
Elev(X) = HI – FS
• The intermediate points upon which the rod is held in running a
differential leveling circuit are called turning points (TPs). Two rod
readings are taken on each, a foresight followed by a Backsight. Turning
points should be solid objects with a definite high point. Careful selection
of stable turning points is essential to achieve accurate results.
• In differential leveling, horizontal lengths for the backsight and foresight
should be made about equal. This can be done by pacing, by stadia
measurements, by counting rail lengths or pavement joints if working
along a track or roadway, or by any other convenient method.
• Balancing BS and FS distance will eliminate errors due to instrument
maladjustment and the combined effects of the Earth’s curvature and
refraction.
Levelling book
• In levelling, the series of readings of BS, IS and FS is recorded
on a standard table for calculation of reduced levels of desired
point. This table is called Levelling book.
• There are two methods for determining reduced levels
• Height of collimation method (HI method)
• Rise and Fall method (RF)
Height of collimation method (HI):
• In this method, reduced level of a point is calculated by
subtracting FS from height of the instrument (RL + BS)
• Height of collimation or line of sight or HI from the reference
plane is determined for every instrument setup.
Rise and Fall method (RF):

• In this method reduced level of the points is determined by

adding the difference between back sight (BS) and foresight
(FS) or intermediate sight (IS).
• If BS – FS or BS – IS > 0
• We call if rise, RL is determined by adding to the
preceding Elevation(RL(bm) or RL(TP))
• If BS – FS or BS – IS < 0
• It is fall, RL is determined by subtracting the
difference from previous RL(RL(bm) or RL(TP)).
• HI Table.docx and RF Table.docx
Note:
• The arithmetic checks MUST be done for all levelling
calculations.
• When establishing the heights of new TBMs and other
important points, only BS and FS readings should be taken
and the rise and fall method of calculation should be used.
• The HI method of calculation can be much quicker when a lot
of intermediate sights have been taken and it is a good
method to use when mapping or setting out where many
readings are often taken from a single instrument position.
• A disadvantage of the HI method is that the check on
reduced levels calculated from IS readings can be lengthy
and there is a tendency for it to be omitted.
Sources of error in levelling
• Errors in the equipment
• Collimation error, Compensator not working, Parallax,
Defects of the staff and Tripod defects.
• Field or on-site errors
• Staff not vertical, Unstable ground, Handling the
instrument and tripod, Instrument not level, Reading and
booking errors and Weather conditions
• The effects of curvature and refraction on levelling
How to reduce errors on levelling
• Instrumental errors can be avoided by proper maintenance and
adjustment of equipment.
• Field errors are caused by carelessness when on site – make sure
recommended procedures are followed to reduce the chance of
these occurring.
• Mistakes in observing and recording staff readings are a matter of
experience the best way to avoid these is to read – write it down
read at each staff position.
• Because it records automatically, the digital level is capable of taking
staff readings that are error-free.
• Levelling in extreme weather conditions can often be difficult and is
not recommended.
Other Levelling Methods

• Profile
• Cross-section
• Inverted Staff
• Reciprocal
Profile levelling

• Before engineers can properly design linear facilities such as

highways, railroads, transmission lines, aqueducts, canals,
sewers, and water mains, they need accurate information about
the topography along the proposed routes.
• Profile leveling, which yields elevations at definite points along a
reference line, provides the needed data.
• Depending on the particular project, the reference line may be a
single straight segment, as in the case of a short sewer line; a
series of connected straight segments which change direction at
angle points, as with transmission lines; or straight segments
joined by curves, which occur with highways and railroads.
• The required alignment for any proposed facility will normally
have been selected as the result of a preliminary design, which is
usually based on a study of existing maps and aerial photos.
• The reference alignment will most often be the proposed
construction centerline.

• To stake the proposed reference line, key points such as the

starting and ending points and angle points will be set first.

• Then intermediate stakes will be placed on line, usually placed

at 10, 20, 30, or 40 m spacing, depending on conditions.
• Distances for staking can be taped, or measured using the
electronic distance measuring (EDM) component of a total
station instrument operating in its tracking mode.

• In route surveying, a system called stationing is used to specify

the relative horizontal position of any point along the reference
line. The starting point is usually designated with some arbitrary
value, If the metric system is used, full stations are 1 km (1000
m) apart.
• The starting point of a reference line might be arbitrarily
designated as or but again could be used.

• In rural areas, intermediate points are normally set at 30- or 40-m

increments along the line, and are again designated by their pluses.
If the beginning point was 1+ 000 and stakes were being set at 40-
m intervals, then 1+040, 1+080, 1+120 etc. would be set.

• In rugged terrain and in urban situations, stakes are normally set

closer together, for example 20, 10, or even 5 m increments may be
staked.
• PROFILE LEVELS_example.docx
Cross-section
• Cross-section levelling is necessary to know the topography of
the area which required for the roads and railways, is used to
compute the volume of cut and fill for the construction work.
• cross sections are taken (at right angles to the centerline),
usually at intervals of 10, 20, 30, or 40 m.
• Cross-sectioning consists of observing ground elevations and
their corresponding distances left and right perpendicular to
the centerline.
• Readings must be taken at the centerline, at high and low
points, and at locations where slope changes occur to
determine the ground profile accurately. The distance to the left
or right of the center line is determined by using tape.
Inverted staff
• Occasionally, it may be necessary to determine the heights of
points such as a ceiling or the soffit of a bridge, underpass or
canopy. Usually, these points will be above the plane of
collimation of the level.
• To obtain the reduced levels of these points, the staff is held
upside down in an inverted position with its base on the
elevated points.
• When booking an inverted staff reading, it is entered into the
levelling table with a minus sign, the calculation proceeding in
the normal way taking this sign into account.
RECIPROCAL LEVELING
• Sometimes in leveling across topographic features such as rivers, lakes,
and canyons, it is difficult or impossible to keep backsight and
foresights short and equal. Reciprocal leveling may be utilized at such
locations.
Thank you