Strength of Material

Faculty: Civil Engineering

Course Title:- Strength of material

Course code:- Ceng-2021

Credit hour:- 3(2L+3T)-(5-Ects)

Academic calendar:- 2014 E.C

 Chapter 1
Mechanical properties of material

Introduction
Engineering mechanics - is a science that deals with property of
material under external applied load.
Mechanics can be classified into 3 categories.

1. Mechanics of rigid body (statics, dynamics..)

2. Mechanics of deformable body strength of material

3. Mechanics of fluids .
 Continue… Introduction
Deformable body: is a body in which relative movement of
particles of a body is considered.

It is obvious that when external loads transmitted through a body

it will deform (change in shape).

The resistance of a body to deform is known as the strength of

material.

 Deformation is the result of internal forces in a body under

consideration.
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 External forces  internal forces  Deformation (elastic,
plastic deformation).

 External forces- are forces that are external to the boundary of

the body under consideration such as applied load, reactions.

 Internal forces- are forces between particles within the internal

boundary of the body. These forces are:
1. Axial forces
2. Shear force,
3. Bending moment…
 Continue… introduction
Normal force: is a force perpendicular to cross – section of an
element .
Axial force (normal force):- is a force that acts in direction of
longitudinal axis of a bar.
Axial force can be compression or tensile force.
1. Compression force is a normal force that tends to shorten the
material.
P P
2. Tension force is a normal force that tends to stretch the
material.
T T
 1.2 Normal stress and strain

•Suppose
  a prismatic bar that is subjected to axial tensile forces P at the ends as
shown in Fig.1.1 and consider imaginary cut at section m-n in Fig 1.1b.

 Distributed force per unit area of cross-section is called Stress.

 Stress is the intensity of force per unit area.

 Stress is denoted by sigma (σ) and has unit of N/m^2 usually expressed in

Mpa.
 1.2 Normal stress and strain

 The stress in which the force acts in perpendicular direction to

the cross sectional area of the bar is known as Normal stress.

 Normal stress can be compressive or tensile stress.

Compressive stress: is the stress due to compressive force or the

stress on the shortening part of a bar-in case of member under
bending moment.

Tensile stress :- is the stress due to tensile force or the stress on the
stretching part of a bar-in case of member under bending moment.
 Normal strain

•   is the ratio of change in length (ΔL) to the original length of the

Strain
bar. Consider straight bar subjected to tensile load T.
ΔL
T T
L Lf

Due to the tensile force the length of bar will change by an amount of
ΔL.
Change In length
ΔL/Lo
Strain is dimensionless quantity and indicates the deformation per unit
length of a bar.
 1.3 Stress – strain diagram
 Mechanical property of a particular material easily described
by its stress – strain diagram.

 Stress-strain diagrams exhibit the behavior of engineering

materials subjected to loads.

 Generally, structural materials can be classified as

 Ductile,
 Brittle,
 Plastic and
 Rubber based on their response when subjected to load.
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Consider the stress – strain diagram of mild steel also known as low carbon
steel.
1. Stress – strain diagram of mild steel (ductile material).
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1.
•   From point O to A
 Stress and strain have linear and proportional relationship
 The curve has straight line from origin to point A.
 Thus stress is directly proportional to strain.

 Where E – is proportionality constant called

modulus of elasticity of the material.

 The point from O to A represent the elastic range of the

material.
 The region under elastic range is called linear elastic region.
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•   the other hand, the slope of straight line from o to A is:

On

Note: the slope of stress strain diagram under elastic range is

elastic modulus of the material.
Modulus elasticity (E): is constant that depend on nature of
material and indicate the range to which the material behave
elastically.
Beyond point A:- with out significant increment of stress, the
strain increase more rapidly until at point B. The stress at point B
is called yield stress.
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Between point B to C:- the material undergo strain deformation with out
increment of stress up to point C.
 This region is called plastic region that is region of permanent deformation.

Between point C to D: deformation of material due to yield stress ceases. i.e the
material begin to harden and develop resistance to further deformation.
 Hence, stress increase from C to D and material undergo deformation. After
some maximum at point D the material begin to fracture. The stress at point
D is called ultimate stress.

Beyond point D: Further stretching of the bar cause reduction in the load
carrying capacity of the test specimen.
 Lateral contraction of the specimen occurs when it is stretched, resulting in
a decrease in the cross-sectional area.
 In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the lateral contraction become visible
and the situation is termed as Necking.
 2. Stress strain diagram for aluminum alloys

Aluminum alloys are ductile material however do not have a clearly definable
yield point. Such materials:
Have initial linear region with recognizable proportional limit.
Undergo large strain deformation after proportional limit.

These materials have no clearly defined yield stress . In such case yield stress
is determined by offset method.
Continue…Stress strain diagram for aluminum alloys

 Yield stress is the stress at which the material begin plastic deformation.

 To determine yield stress by offset method:

 Draw straight line parallel to initial linear curve of stress –strain curve.

 The point at which offset line and stress – strain curve intersect taken
as yield stress of material under consideration.

 The offset is done by recommended strain value. E.g 0.002 or 0.2%

-for aluminum alloys, high yielding stress steel.
 Elasticity, plasticity and creep
Elasticity: is property of material in which deformed shape due to loading
return back to its original shape up on loading.

 The Strain due to loading relieve due to unloading

 Elasticity, plasticity and creep
Plasticity: is the situation under which the material unable to attain its original
shape up on unloading. This property occur on the plastic region of stress-
strain diagram.

In the plastic region strain developed due to loading do not entirely removed
upon unloading of the material and the remaining strain is called residual
strain.
 Due to small recovery of the small recovery the material said to be partial
plastic.
1.4 linear elasticity, Hooke’s law and Poisson's ratio

•strain
Consider structural steel subjected to axial stress consequently the stress-
  curve begin with straight line i.e stress-strain have linear relationship
and the region under straight line of stress- strain curve is called elastic region.
Under elastic region, the material is said to be linearly elastic material. i.e
increase in stress accompanied by proportional strain --also called basic
elastic theory.
Hooke’s law:- the linear r/ship of stress and strain is proportional under elastic
region.
-Hooke’s law
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•  
Poisson's ratio
Axial deformation is accompanied by lateral contraction. The lateral
contraction is proportional to axial deformation (strain) if a material is in
linearly elastic range.

 
-- 𝜀 ′=− 𝜀∗ ν
  lateral strain for uniaxial stress.

The ratio of lateral strain to axial strain is called Poisson’s ratio. Poisson’s ratio
is constant property of material in elastic region. For metals Poisson’s ratio
range from 0.25-0.35 and for concrete a value varies from 0.1-0.2.
 Generalized Hooke’s law

•strain
On cubic elements stress can act on all dimensions. Hence general state of
  in an element in a multi-axial state of stress is shown below.

Multi-axial state of stress on 3D-element.

Here the axial stress on one axis result in lateral contraction on remaining axis
the total strain is the sum of strain due to all three stresses. i.e
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•  
Total strain is the sum of strain due to each stresses

Similarly for y- and z-axis:

 1.5 shear stress and strain

•Direct
Shear stress - is the stress tend to cut the material subjected to load ‘P’.
  shear stresses occur in :
1. Members subjected traversal load.
2. Bolted connections.
Shear stress due traverse loading occur in the cutting plane or on the area
perpendicular to main axis of bar.

Shear stress induced by load ‘F’ is given by:

‘A’- is the area of rod parallel to the load ‘P’

2. Shear stress in bolted connection : - consider a bolted connection shown
below :
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•  
stress over the surface of the bolt is called bearing stress, σb

A - is rectangular projected area with diameter of bolt multiplied by

thickness of plate.
Shear stress ,’ ’ exerted on the bolt is

where

Shear Strain
Any object deform or change shape when stress is induced due to external
load. Shear strain unlike normal strain do not have tendency to elongate or
shorten rather result in change of orientation (angle). Consider rectangular
element shown below.
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•  

Due to shear stress the rectangular element oriented by total angle of ‘ϒ’. The
angle gamma (‘ϒ’) is a measure of distortion and is called shear strain ‘ϒ’.
Shear strain is measured in angles or radians.
Hooke’s law in shear – for many materials initially shear stress and strain have
linear r/ship similar to that of tension diagram. Thus for linear elastic region
shear stress and shear strain are proportional .
----- Hooke’s law in shear.
the relation of modulus of elasticity E, modulus of rigidity and Poisson’s ration
is given by:
 1.6 Allowable stress and design stress

•  
Structures are objects that can support and transmit load safely and are required to
function for intended use over design period. Structures should have strength to sustain
load on it. Strength is the ability of structure to carry load applied to it. Hence, actual
stress capacity of structure must exceed the stress due to applied load. i.e
Actual strength of material(yield stress) > working stress (allowable stress )
To satisfy this requirement a factor of safety is provide in respective codes of each
country. Actual strength of material affected due to different factors.

Factor of safety is provided to account for:

Quality and variation of material to be used.
Environmental factors …corrosion…on materials

Factor of safety must be grater than 1 not to exceed actual yield stress and determined
by repeated lab test.
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•over  the design period.

Allowable stress is the stress that will not cause failure structure or material

Sometimes for brittle materials such as concrete, high yield steels a factor of
safety is determined from ultimate stress.

Design stress:
In design analysis stress due to actual load is increased by increasing the load.
Since stress is the result of load a factor safety is introduced to load.

Thus

Design stress ≤ Allowable stress