Wolkite University: Department of Horticulture

Wolkite University
College of Agriculture and Natural Resource

Department of Horticulture
Course Title: Principles, Design and Analysis of

Agricultural Experiments
Course Code: Hort371
Course Credit: 3 hrs. (2+1)
Course Instructor: Bewuket G.(MSc.)
Prepared By Bewuket G.(MSc.) 1

Chapter 1
Hypothesis Testing And Its Importance In Agricultural Experimentation
Chapter outline
1.1. Elementary statistics
1.2. Definition of hypothesis and its importance
1.3. Test of two or more means
1.4. Test of two or more variances

1.1. Elementary Statistics
• Statistics is a branch of mathematics that studies the collection,
organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data
• It is a tool that is used to:
• design data collection methodology
• summarize and describe data
• infer population parameter from sample statistics
• make generalization about population characteristics
• To make comparison among populations
• hypothesis testing such as F statistics, Z and t test

Statistics may be classified as follows
a) Descriptive statistics:
• Describe the properties of a sample with respect to the given
variable or variables
• Include mean, median, mode, percentiles, standard deviation,

variance, coefficient of variation, correlation coefficient, etc.
• They belong to the following three categories according to the

property of the sample described by them.
a.Statistics of location,
b.Statistics of dispersion,

a. Statistics of location
(Measures of central tendency)
• Describes the position of a sample along a given
dimension
• Representing a variable.
• Does not describe the shape of a frequency distribution.
• Include
• Arithmetic mean, Geometric mean, Harmonic mean,
Median and Mode
• Example:
• The mean biomass weight of a given plant
• Academic grade point of students

Arithmetic mean
•• Sum of observed values of a set divided by the number of
observations in the set
• It is the most widely used measures of central tendency
• The population mean is usually denoted by m whereas the
sample mean is denoted by x - (small letter).
• E.g. find the mean height of sweet corn if the measured

height (cm) for five representative plants are of the
following 150.8, 160.5, 155.4, 146.6, 145.7 cm
= 758/5= 151.6

Geometric mean
• It is the nth root of the product of the n units in a data set
• If there are 2 observations, then the GM is the square
root of the product of 2 observations
• If there are three observations, then it is the cube root of
the product of the 3 observations
• Thus, if there are n observations, the GM will be the nth
root of the product of the nth observations, viz,

…GM
•Example

• The number of bacteria (x103) observed in an experiment at
hourly intervals is as follows: 10, 25, 76, 148, 302
•The geometric mean of these 5 values will be

= 61.07

Harmonic mean
• It is the reciprocal of arithmetic mean
• Example: find the harmonic mean of the height of sweet

corn if the measured height (cm) for five representative
plants are of the following: 150.8, 160.5, 155.4, 146.6, 145.7
cm (Ans:30.32)

Median
• The midpoint of the data after being ranked (sorted in
ascending order)
• Thus, the median divides a frequency distribution into two

halves
• Example:
1. The median for the following sample of five
measurements is 14, 15, 16, 19, 23 (Ans:16)
2. Let x be 1, 2,3,4,5, and 6. Find the median?
• Arrange the values in ascending order as: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
• Find the location of the median, that is 1/2 (3+4) =3.5

… Median
• Example 3. Calculate of median from the data given

below (Class work)
2.90 3.57 3.73
2.98 3.61 3.75
3.30 3.62 3.76

3.38 3.66 3.76
3.43 3.68 3.76
3.43 3.69 3.77
3.45 3.71 3.84
3.55 3.72 3.88

Mode
• Mode: is the most frequently occurring value. Mode may
not exist; even if it does exist it may not be unique.
• Example
1. The data set 2,2,5,7,9,9,9,10,10,11,12, and 18 has
mode 9
2. The data set 3,5,8,10,12,15 and 16 has no mode
3. The data set 2,3,4,4,4,5,5,7,7,7,and 9 has two modes 4

and 7 and is called bimodal

b. Statistics of dispersion
(Measure of dispersion)
• Averages are measures of representative of a frequency
distribution
• But they fail to give a complete picture of the distribution
• They don’t tell about the scatter ness of observations within
the distribution
• The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about
an average is called the dispersion, or variation of the data
• The most common measures of variation are:
• Range
• Mean deviation (Variance)
• Standard deviation

Range
• It is the difference in value between the highest (maximum)
and the lowest (minimum) observation
• Range takes only the maximum and minimum values into
account and not all values
• Hence, it is very unstable or unreliable indicator of the
amount of variation
• It is affected by extreme values
R=Highest value-lowest value
•Example
1. The range of the set 2,3,3,5,5,5,8,10,12 is 12-2=10.
The range could be indicated as 2 to 12, 2-12
2. Find the range for the following numbers; 1, 2, 4, 7
7-1= 6
Mean deviation (variance)
• It is the average of the squares of the distance of each data
value from the mean as shown in equation:
• However, the variance computed using n usually

underestimates the population variance and thus the sum
of squares is divided by n−1 degree of freedom, giving a
slightly larger value

Standard deviation
• Refers
to the average deviation or distance of each
variate or observation from the mean of the sample or
• It is defined as the square root of the mean of the

squared deviations of individual values from their mean.
S
Or

Numerical Example:
• Find
the variance and standard deviation for the following 4
values: 1, 2, 4, 7
Solution:
• Firstly, calculate the mean
=3.5
• Secondly, calculate the variance
S2 = = 7
• Thirdly, calculate the standard deviation
• = = 2.645571

Example #2 (Class work)
• Find the variance and standard deviation of
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 and 9

b. Inferential statistics
• It is the drawing of inference or conclusion for the
population parameter from sample
• Example:
• from sample mean parametric mean;
• from sample variance parametric variance
• Includes linear regression analyses, ANOVA,

correlation, analyses, logistic regression analyses,
structural equation, modeling, and survival analysis,
etc.
1.2. Hypothesis and hypothesis
testing
• Experiment: is simply a test or serious of tests to
evaluate claims about a population
• Hypothesis: is key questions any claim or conjecture
about the population that has to be verified or
disproved
• In other words hypothesis is a conjecture about
a population parameter which may or may not be
true.
• Hypothesis is usually suggested by past
experience, observations, and theoretical
considerations

Importance of hypothesis
• hypothesis guides the researcher:
• to delimit the field of investigation
• to have very realistic approach to the problem (it
• should be repeatable)
• to offer the simple methods for collecting evidences
• to the verification
• Hypothesis in general attempts to explain, predict, and

explore the relationship between two or more variables.

Types of hypothesis
• There are two types of statistical hypothesis
a. Null hypothesis (H0)
• States that there is no difference between a
parameter and a specific value or that there is no
difference between two parameters
b. Alternate hypothesis (H1)

• States a specific difference between a parameter and
a specific value or states there is a difference
between a parameter and a specific value or states
that there is a difference between two parameters

Hypothesis testing
• It is a decision making-process for evaluating claims about a
population
• Hypothesis testing is a decision making process for evaluating

claims about a population
• Design of experiment: is a standard procedure that any

researcher should apply in order to test a hypothesis
• Hypothesis can be tested through one or more of the following

depending on the nature and objective of research inquiry
• t-test, chi square test, Z-test, and/or F-test

…hypothesis testing
• Possible outcomes of hypothesis testing

H0 True H0 False
Reject Error Correct

H0 Type I decision
Do not reject Correct Error

H0 decision Type II

…hypothesis testing
Type I errors:
- We reject the Null Hypothesis when it is true
- The probability of Type I error is denoted by α. Typical
values chosen for α are 0.05 or 0.01.
- So, for example, if α= 0.05, there is a 5% chance that,
when the null hypothesis is true, we will erroneously
reject it.
Type II errors:
- We do not reject the Null Hypothesis when it is false and
the Alternative is true
- Probability of Type II error = ß.

1.3. Test of two or more means
•t-test

• The t test is a statistical test for the mean of a population and is
used when the population is used when the population is
normally or approximately normally distributed, s is known, and
n < 30 .
• The degree of freedom are df = n-1

Procedures
1.State the hypotheses and identify the claim
2.Find the critical value(s) from Appendix 1
3.Compute the test value
4.Make the decision to reject or not to reject the null hypothesis
5.Summarize the results
… t-test
•
Example. A job placement director claims that the average starting
salary for nurses is 24, 000 Birr. A sample of 10 nurses has a mean
of 23,450 and a standard deviation of 400. Is there enough
evidence to reject the director’s claim at a =0.05?
Solution
1. H 0 : m = 24,000(claim) and H1 : m ¹ 24,000
2. The critical values are +2.262 and -2.262 for a =0.05 and d.f. =9.
3. The test value is
= = -4.35
4. Reject the null hypothesis, since -4.35 < -2.262.
5. There is enough evidence to reject the claim that the starting
salary of nurses is 24,000 Birr.

1.4. Test of two or more variances
• Even though one is comparing three or more means using F
test, variances are used instead of means
• With the F test, two different estimates of the population
variance are made
1. Between group variance: involves finding the variance of the
means
V1 V2
P1 P2
2. Within group variance estimate: made by computing the

variance using all the data and is not affected by the difference in
the means
V1 V2
P1 P2 28
Prepared By Bewuket G.(MSc.)
Example:
 If there is no difference in the means, the between group
variance estimate will be approximately equal to the within
group variance estimate, and the F test value will be
approximately equal to 1. The null hypothesis will not be
rejected
 If the means differ significantly, the between group variance

will be much larger than the within group variance; the F
test value will be significantly greater than 1; and the null
hypothesis will be rejected
 since the variances are compared, the procedure is known

as analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Chapter 2- Elements of Experimentation
Chapter outlines
2.1. Basic principles in experimentation
2.2. Controlling experimental error
2.2.1. Estimation of error
2.2.2. Control of error
2.2.3. Proper interpretation of result

2.1. Basic principles in
experimentation
• There are three basic principles of experimentation
1. Randomization
2. Replication
3. Local control
• These are complementary to each other in trying to

increase the accuracy of the experiment and to
provide a valid test of significance
• At the same time retain the distinctive features of

their roles in any experiment
1. Randomization
• It is a means of assigning the treatments or factors to be
tested to the experimental units according to definite laws
or probability
• In this case all treatments have equal chances of being
allocated to different experimental units
Fig. Treatments with no randomization

Cont’d
Fig. Randomly assigned treatments

Importance of Randomization
• It guarantees the elimination of systematic error
• Ensures that whatever error component that still
persists in the observations is purely random in nature
2. Replication
• It is the repeated application of the treatments
under investigation
• If the treatment is applies only once we have no
means of knowing about the variation in the result
of a treatment
• Only when we repeat the application of the
treatment several times we can estimate the
experimental error.
• The purpose of replication are to estimate and
control experimental error

… replication
Repeat how many times?
• More replications are required when there is:
• Higher variability
• Smaller treatment differences
• 2 or 3 replication is often ok when there is a

large number of treatments

3. Local control
• The error in an experiment is a measure of “within
block” variation
• Grouping of homogeneous experimental units into

blocks is known as local control of error
• Local control can be accomplished by either

• uniformity trial, or
• by examination of the result of actual experiments
through ANOVA, what the error variance would have
been if any particular grouping had been done

… Local control
Note that
 In order to valid estimates of experimental error,
the principles of replication and randomization are
used
 In order to reduce the experimental error, the

principles of replication and local control are used

2.2. Control of experimental error
 Generally, the design of the experiment contains
three essential components.
 These are:
I. Estimation of error
II. Control of error
III. Proper interpretation of results
I. Estimation of error
• The difference among experimental plots treated alike is
called experimental error
• This error is the primary basis for deciding whether an
observed difference is real or due to chance

Cont’d
Example:
• suppose you want to compare the yield of two varieties: A
and B
• Hypothesis:
• Ho: there is no yield difference between A and B
• H1: there is a yield difference between A and B
A B
85 kg 75 kg
• Do you think the observed difference between variety A and variety B

is real?
Cont’d
• The answer is no. Because there are other factors
that influences the yield of crops
• Factors such as:
• soil fertility
• soil moisture
• damage by insects
• birds and diseases
• competition from weeds
• etc.

… control of experimental error
II. Control of error

• A good experiment incorporates all possible means of
minimizing the experimental error
• Because the ability to detect existing differences among

treatments increase as the size of experimental error
decreases
• Error can be minimized by the following three techniques in

addition to replication and randomization
a. Blocking
b. Proper plot techniques
c. Data analysis
… control of error
a. Blocking
• Putting experimental units that are as similar as
possible together in the same group is called
blocking
• By assigning all treatments into each block

separately and independently, variations among
blocks can be measured and removed from
experimental error

… blocking
• Which blocking is better? 1 or 2

b. Proper plot techniques
 For almost all types of experiments, it is absolutely essential that all other
factors aside from those considered as treatments be maintained uniformly
for all experimental units.
 For example, in variety trials where the treatments consists solely of the test
varieties, it is required that all other factors such as soil nutrients, solar energy,
plant population, pest incidence, and an almost infinite number of other
environmental factors are maintained uniformly for all plots in the experiment
• For field experiments with crops, the important sources of variability among
plots treated alike are
soil heterogeneity
competition effects, and
mechanical errors

c. Data analysis
• In addition to blocking proper choice of data
analysis method can adequately control error
• Covariance analysis is most commonly used for this

purpose
• It is used to reduce within group variance

…Control of experimental error
III. Proper interpretation of result
• Homogeneity created by the experimental design limits
the applicability and generalization of the experimental
results, a limitation that must always considered in the
interpretation of results
• Example: varieties that has been superior under good

management condition might be poorer under traditional
farmers practice
• The result of an experiment is, strictly speaking,

applicable only to conditions that are the same as, or
similar to, that under which the experiment is conducted
Self assessment questions
1. List the basic principles of experimentation? (1.5
points)
2. What is randomization? (1 point)
3. What is replication? (1 point)
4. How can you minimize error in an experiment?
(1.5 points)

Chapter 3. Single Factor Experimental Designs
and Analysis Of Variance (ANOVA)
Chapter outlines
3.1. Concepts and needs of ANOVA
3.2. Basic Experimental Designs
3.2.1. Completely Randomized Design (CRD)
3.2.2. Randomized Complete Block Design
3.2.3. Latin Square Design
3.2.4. Lattice Design

Introduction
Common Terminologies
• Design: a plan to collect observation
• Experiments: is a planned activity resulting in a set of data
• Experimental material: the “stuff” we are applying

treatments to (field plots, cows, varieties, etc.)
• Response variable: variable measured in an

experiment(outcome). Example: yield, height of plant,
number of branches, etc.

… Common terminologies
• Experimental Unit: an object or material that received
treatments or an object upon which the response variable ‘y’
is measured. Examples: plot, plant, leaf, root, etc.
• Factor: refers to a kind of treatment. Examples: fertilizer,

method of sowing, varieties, pesticides, irrigation, salinity etc.
• Level: The value assumed by a factor in an experiment (E.g.

Fertilizer levels: 0 kg/ha urea, 10 kg/ha urea; varieties of
tomato: melka shola, Melka salsa, Marglove) expressed as 2
levels of Nitrogen; 3 varieties.

• Treatment: A particular combination of levels of
the factors in an experiment
Example 1: Single factor exp’t: to test the effect of

methods of tillage:
• Treatments: conventional tillage, minimum tillage,
and conservation tillage
• The number of levels are: 3
Example 2: Two factor exp’t: (variety vs Urea) each factors
containing 2 levels will have a treatment combination of:
V1N1, V1N2, V2N1, V2N2

• Control treatment: is a necessary bench mark
treatment to evaluate the effectiveness of
experimental treatments.

3.1. Concepts and needs of ANOVA
• The point of conducting an experiment is to find a
significant effect between the stimuli being tested
• To do this:
o F test (ANOVA) or t-test can be applied
o The t-test is used to compare the 2 means
o F test (ANOVA) is used to compare 3 or more means
• Generally, ANOVA is important to test significance

between treatments and draws inferences

3.2. Basic Experimental Design
 Based on the number of factors to be tested; experiments can
be classified as
- single factor and
- multifactor (factorial) experiments
 Single factor experiments:
• are experiments in which a single factor varies while all
others are kept constant
• in such experiments, the treatments consist solely of the
different levels of the single variable factor
• Example:
• Variety trial in which different varieties are tested
• Fertilizer trial where several rates
Prepared of a single
By Bewuket G.(MSc.)fertilizer element are tested 54
… Basic Experimental Design
 Designs applicable for single factor experiment are grouped in
to two. These are:
1.Complete block designs:
• characterized by blocks which contain at least one complete
set of treatments
• suited to small number of treatments
• Example: CRD, RCBD, Latin-square design
2.Incomplete block designs:
• characterized by blocks each contains only a fraction of treatments
• suited for large number of treatments
• Example: lattice design and group balanced block design
3.2.1. Completely Randomized
Design (CRD)
a. Basic concepts behind CRD
• Treatments are assigned completely at random so that

each experimental unit has the chance of receiving any
one treatment
• Experimental error in CRD is the difference among

experimental units receiving the same treatment

… Completely Randomized Design
• Advantages of completely randomized designs
1. Complete flexibility is allowed - any number of treatments
and replicates may be used
2. Relatively easy statistical analysis, even with variable

replicates and variable experimental errors for different
treatments
3. Analysis remains simple when data are missing
4. Provides the maximum number of degrees of freedom of

error for a given number of experimental units and
treatments
… Completely Randomized
Design
Disadvantages of completely randomized designs
1. Relatively low accuracy due to lack of restrictions

which allows environmental variation to enter
experimental error
2. Not suited for large numbers of treatments

because a relatively large amount of
experimental material is needed which increases
the variation

Design
• Appropriate use of completely randomized designs
1. Under conditions where the experimental material
is homogeneous, i.e.
• Laboratory, or growth chamber experiments.
2. Where a fraction of the experimental units is likely

to be destroyed or fail to respond.
3. In small experiments where there is a small

number of degrees of freedom
• Note that CRD is rarely applicable for field experiments

Design
•b. Randomization and layout in CRD
Step 1. determine the total number of experimental plots (n)
as the product of the number of treatments (t) and the
number of replications (r) given as:
• Example: if the number of treatments (t) is 4 and replication (r) is 5

then the total number of experimental plot (n) will be calculated
as
Step 2. Assign a plot number to each experimental plot in any

convenient manner and assign the treatments to the
experimental plots by any of the following randomization
techniques:
Randomization techniques:
I. Table of random numbers
II. Drawing lots
III. Drawing playing cards
IV. Minitab
V. MS-excel

… Randomization and layout in CRD
I. By Table Of Random Tables
• Step I. locate a starting point in the table of random numbers by closing your eyes
• Step II. Using the starting point obtained in step I, read downward vertically to
obtain n random numbers (three digit numbers are preferred because they are
less likely to include ties than one or two-digit numbers.
• Step III. Rank the n random numbers obtained in step II in ascending or
descending order
• Step IV. Divide the n ranks derived in step III into t groups, each consisting of r
numbers, according to the sequence in which the random numbers appeared.
• Step VI. Assign the t treatments to the n experimental plots, by using the group
number of step IV as the treatment number and the corresponding ranks in each
group as the plot number in which the corresponding treatment is to be assigned.

II. By Drawing Plots
• Step I. Prepare n identical pieces of paper and divide them into t
groups, each group with r pieces of paper. Label each piece of
paper of the same group with the same letter corresponding to a
treatment. Uniformly fold each of the n labeled pieces of paper,
mix them thoroughly, and place them in a container.
• Step II. Draw one piece of paper at a time, without replacement
and with constant shaking of container after each draw to mix its
content.
• Step III. Assign the treatments to plots based on the
corresponding treatment label and sequence, drawn in step II.

III. By Drawing Cards
Step 1. From a deck of ordinary playing cards, draw n cards,
one at a time, mixing the remaining cards after every draw.
This procedure cannot be used when the total number of
experimental units exceeds 52 because there are only 52
cards in a pack.
Step 2. Rank the cards drawn in step B1 according to the suit

rank and number of the card.
Step 3. Assign the t treatments to the n plots by using the

rank obtained in step 2 as the plot number. Follow the
procedure in steps A (4) and (5).
Design
C. Analysis of Variance
• There are two sources of variation among the ‘n’
observations obtained from a CRD trial.
• treatment variation
• experimental error
• Analysis with equal replication: this is the method

used when all the treatments are equally repeated
• The analysis has the following steps:

… ANOVA in CRD
Treatment Replication Trt total (Ti) Trt mean
Step 1. Group
1
1 2
2 3
3 4
4
the data by 1 C1
treatments and 1 C1 C2
C2 C3 C3 C4
C4 T1/4
T1/4
calculate the 2 D1 D2 D3 D4 T2/4

2 D1 D2 D3 D4 T2/4
treatment 3 E1 E2 E3 E4 T3/4
totals (T), 3
4
E1
F1
E2
F2
E3
F3
E4
F4
T3/4
T4/4
treatment
4
5 F1
G1 F2
G2 F3
G3 F4
G4 T4/4
T5/4
mean and
grand total (G). 6
5 H1
G1 H2
G2 H3
G3 H4
G4 T6/4
T5/4
Grand Total
6
(GT) H1 H2 H3 H4 T6/4
Grand Mean GT/n
(GM) Total
Grand
(GT)
Grand Mean GT/n
(GM)

… ANOVA in CRD
Step 2. Construct an outline of ANOVA
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Computed F
variation freedom squares square Tabular F
(DF) (SS) (MS)
5% 1%
Treatment
Error
Total

… ANOVA in CRD
Step 3. Determine the degree of freedom for each
sources of variation from the number of treatments
and replication
• Total d.f =n-1 or tr-1

n=(r)(t)
• Treatment d.f = t-1
• Error d.f = Total d.f –Treatment d.f or t(r-1) or
(tr-1)-(t-1)

… ANOVA in CRD
Step 4. Calculate the correction factor and the
various sum of squares

… ANOVA in CRD
•Step
5. Calculate the mean squares (MS) for each source
of variation by dividing each SS by its corresponding d.f.
Treatment MS =
Error MS =
Step 6. Calculate the F value for testing significance of

the treatment difference as:
F=

… ANOVA in CRD
• Note here that the F value should be computed
only when the error df is large enough for a reliable
estimate of error variance. As guideline it should be
six or more
• Step 7. obtain the tabular F value from appendix E,

with f1 = treatment df and f2= error df

… ANOVA in CRD
• Step 8. Enter all the values computed in step 3 to 7
in the outline of ANOVA
Source of Degree Sum of Computed F Tabular F
variation of Squares
freedom (SS) 5% 1%
(df)
Treatment 6 5,587,174 931,196 9.83** 2.57 3.81

Error 21 1,990,238 94,773
Total 27 7,577,412

… ANOVA in CRD
Step 9.Compare the computed F value with the tabular F value
and decide on the significance of the difference among
treatments using the following rules
• If F cal > F tab at 1% LS, the trt difference is said to be highly
significant (place two asterisk on F cal value).
✒ Reject Ho
• If F cal > F tab at 5 % LS but smaller than or equal to the tabular F

value at 1 % level, the trt difference is said to be significant
(place single asterisk on F cal value).
✒ Reject Ho
• If F cal < F tab at 5 % LS, the trt difference is said to be non-

significant (place NS on F cal value).
✒ Accept Ho

… ANOVA in CRD
Note
 NS f-test means,
1. No difference b/n trt
or
2. Large error
or
3. Both
Remedial means
 If trt mean difference & error are both big
 Repeat the experiment
 If both are small
 There is no difference b/n trt means
… ANOVA in CRD
Step 10. Compute Coefficient of variation (CV)
• = Square root of Error MS divided by GM
( EMS / GM ) x100
• CV indicates the degree of precision with which the
treatments are compared & is a good index of the
reliability of the experiment
• The higher the CV value the lower there liability of the
experiment
• It varies greatly with the type of experiment, crop type
character measured
…CV
 Varies with experimental nature, the crop &
dependent variable measured
6 to 8 % (Varietal experiment)
10 to 12% (fertilizer experiment)
15 to 20% (pesticide trial)

… ANOVA in CRD
Analysis with unequal replication in

CRD

… unequal replication (CRD)
• Step 1. Treatment
1
Replication
2 3 4
Trt total (Ti) Trt mean
1 2 3 4
group 1
1 C1
C1 C2
C2 C3 C3 T1/4
T1/4
the data 2 D1 D2 D3 D4 T2/4
2 D1 D2 D3 D4 T2/4
3 E1 E2 E3 E4 T3/4
3 E1 E2 E3 E4 T3/4
4 F1 F2 F3 F4 T4/4
4
5 F1
G1 F2
G2 F3
G3 F4
G4 T4/4
T5/4
6
5 H1
G1 H2
G2 H3
G3 H4
G4 T6/4
T5/4
Grand Total
6
(GT) H1 H2 H3 H4 T6/4
Grand Mean GT/n
(GM) Total
Grand
(GT)
Grand Mean GT/n
(GM)

… unequal replication (CRD
• Step 2. Construct outline of ANOVA
Source of Degree of Sum of Mean Computed F
variation freedom squares square Tabular F
(DF) (SS) (MS)
5% 1%
Treatment
Error
Total

• Step 3. Determine the degree of df for each sources
of variation
• Total df= n-1
• Trt df = t-1
• Error df = Total df – Trt df
• Step 4. Compute the correction factor and sum of

squares for each sources of variation
CF = GT2 /n

Step 4. Follow step 5 to 10 of ANOVA for equal

replication

3.2.2. Randomized Complete
Block Designs (RCBD)
Session outlines
I. Basic Concepts of RCBD

II. Randomization and layout in RCBD
III. Blocking and Blocking Efficiency over CRD
IV. Data Tabulation, Analysis and
Interpretation of results

I. Basic Concepts of RCBD
 Completely randomized design (CRD) assumes the
world having little variability, which is not practical.
 For instance, there are fertility trends which cast

problem on CRD application.
 Thus, in the presence of such trends, the use of

CRD is misleading because there is a possibility that
one of the varieties may receive all the good or the
bad plots which ultimately leads to biased error
estimate.
…Basic Concepts of RCBD
 It separate variability due to blocks, more accurate
 The principles of local control is in use
 Most commonly used design in field experiment
 The experimental area is divided in to small
homogenous blocks/replications
 Each block contains complete set of the trts which are
allotted to the plots within each block at random
 Plots in a block are equal to the number of trts
 One trt should appear only once in one block
 e.g Animals of different age, weight, production
capacity, soil N, soil P, soil K content uni-directionally
Blocking Techniques
1. Selection of the source of variability:
• such as soil heterogeneity, slope of field, etc
2. selection of block shape and orientation.
Guideline for the decision are:
a. When the fertility
gradient is
unidirectional use long
and narrow blocks and
the length is
perpendicular to the
direction of gradient
Blocking Techniques
b. when fertility
gradient stronger is
in two directions
with one gradient
much than the other,
ignore the weaker
gradient

Blocking Techniques
c. When the fertility gradient is two directional with both
gradients are strong use one of the following options:
1. use long and narrow blocks with their length
perpendicular to one direction of gradient and use the
covariance technique to take care of the other gradient

Blocking Techniques
c. When the fertility gradient is two directional with both
gradients are strong use one of the following options:
2. use Latin square design

Blocking Techniques
• when the pattern of variability is not predictable, blocks
should be as square as possible

RCBD Advantages
1. Analysis is simple, easy for lay out
2. Allows any number of trts and replication, hence
flexible.
3. Heterogeneity b/n blocks can be estimated and
this helps to reduce error variance (increase
precision)
4. Individual replication can be arranged in any
manner according to soil heterogeneity
5. Estimation of missed values is possible
 If replications are damaged one can generate
information with the other reps discarding the
damaged rep.
RCBD Disadvantages
1. In case we have more number of trts, there will be
considerable soil heterogeneity within the reps,
hence the design can not be adopted, hence the
efficiency of the design decreases as the number of
treatments and hence block size increases
2. The design is not efficient when there is soil

heterogeneity in two or more direction; as well no
heterogeneity
3. Missing data can cause some difficulty in the analysis

• Randomization is applied separately and
independently to each of the blocks
• Example: suppose field experiment with

• six treatments and
• four replications

• Step 1. divide the experimental area into r equal
treatments blocks, and subdivide each blocks into t
number of

• Step 2. Number the t plots consecutively from 1 to
t, and assign t treatments at random to the plots.

• Step 3. Following any of the randomization
techniques for the CRD (e.g using table of random
numbers)
• Do it for all the 4 blocks one by one.

• Step 4. Complete the layout of RCBD for 4
replications and 6 treatments

III. Data Tabulation, Analysis and
Interpretation of Results
• Step 1. group Treatment Replication Trt total Trt mean
1 2 3 4 (T)
the data by
treatments C C1 C2 C3 C4 T1/4
and D D1 D2 D3 D4 T2/4
replications D
E D1
E1 D2
E2 D3
E3 D4
E4 T2/4
T3/4
then F F1 F2 F3 F4 T4/4
calculate E E1 E2 E3 E4 T3/4
G G1 G2 G3 G4 T5/4
treatment FReplication R1
F1 R2
F2 R3
F3 R4
F4 T4/4
totals (T), Total (R)
replication G
Grand Total G1 G2 G3 G4 T5/4
totals (R), (GT)
and grand Replication
Grand Mean R1 R2 R3 R4 GT/n
Total
(GM) (R)
total (G) as
Grand Total
shown (GT)
below:
Grand Mean GT/n
(GM) Prepared By Bewuket G.(MSc.) 98
• Step 2. Construct the outline of the ANOVA
Source of Degree Sum of Mean Computed F

variation of squares square Tabular F
freedom (SS) (MS)
(DF)
5% 1%
Replication
Treatment
Error
Total

• Step 3. Determine degree of freedoms
• Total df = rt-1
• Replication df = r-1
• Treatment df = t-1
• Error df = (r-1)(t-1)
• NB: As in CRD, the error df can also be

computed by subtraction, as follows
• Error df = Total df-Replication df-Treatment df

• Step 4. Compute the correction factor and the
various SS as follows
CF = GT2/rt
Total ss = ∑(xij)2 – CF
Trt ss = ∑(ti)2/b – CF
Rep ss = ∑(ri)2/t – CF
Error ss = Total ss – Trt ss-Rep ss

• Step 5. Compute the mean square for each sources
of variation by dividing each SS by its corresponding
df as

• Step 6. Calculate the F values for testing
significance of the treatment difference
• Note here that the F value should be computed only when

the error df is large enough for a reliable estimate of error
variance. As guideline it should be six or more
• Obtain the tabular F value from appendix E, with f1 =

treatment df and f2= error df

• Step 7. Enter all the values computed in step 3 to 7
in the outline of ANOVA.
Source of Degree Sum of Mean Computed F
variation of squares square Tabular F
freedom (SS) (MS)
(DF)
5% 1%
Replication
Treatment
Error
Total

• Step 8. Compare the computed F value with the tabular F
value and decide on the significance of the difference
among treatments using the following rules.
• If the F cal > F tab at α, 0.01 level of significance
Conclusion: the treatment difference is highly
significant, denoted by two asteriks (**)
• If the F cal > F tab (α, 0.05) ≤ F tab (α, 0.01)
Conclusion: the treatment difference is significant,
indicated by one asteriks (*)
• If the F cal ≤ F tab (α, 0.05)
Conclusion: the treatment difference is not significant
denoted by (ns), indicated that the failure of the expt to
detect any difference among treatments

 It does not in any way, prove that all treatments are the
same, b/c the failure to detect the treatment difference
could be the result of either
• small or nil treatment difference or
• a very large experimental error or both
 whenever the F test is non-significant, the researcher
should examine the size of the experimental error & the
numerical difference among treatment means
• if both are large the trial may be repeated &
efforts made to reduce experimental error. so that
difference among treatments, if any can be
detected
• If both are small, the difference among
treatments is probably too small to be of any
economic value, thus no additional trial is needed
• Step 9. Compute the coefficient of variation (CV)
• CV indicates the degree of precision with which the

trts are compared and is a good index of the
reliability of the experiment.
• The higher the CV value the lower the reliability of
the experiment
• It varies greatly with the type of the experiment,
crop type and character measured

IV. Blocking and Blocking Efficiency
Over CRD
• Blocking
Maximizes the difference among blocks, leaving
the difference among plots of the same block as small as
possible.
• In order to determine this the following steps will be
applied:
Step 1. determine the level of significance of replication
variation by computing the F value for replication as:
Step 2. test values with its significance by comparing it to the

tabular F with f1=(r-1) and f2= (r-1)(t-1) degrees of freedom.
• Blocking is considered to be effective in reducing the experimental
error if F(replication) is significant.

Over CRD
•Step
3. Determine the magnitude of reduction in
experimental error due to blocking of by computing the
relative efficiency (R.E.) parameter as:
• Where Eb is the replication MS and Ee is the error MS in the

RCBD ANOVA
• If the error df is less than 20, the R.E. value should be
multiplied by the adjustment factor k defined as:

Over CRD
• Note that in the equation for R.E., Ee in the denominator is
the error for the RCBD, and the numerator is the
comparable error of the CRD been used.
• Because the difference in the magnitude of experimental

error between a CRD and a RCBD is essentially due to
blocking.
• R.E is indicative of the gain in precision due to blocking.

Over CRD
•Example:
Suppose the block mean square is 648,120 and
error mean square in RCBD was found to be 110,558 in an
experiment with r & t are given as 4 and 6 respectively.
Compute the relative efficiency of RCBD over CRD.
Step 1. Calculate F cal and F tab

• = 5.86
• F tab at 1% and 5% significant level where f1=3,

f2= 15
- F tab, 0.01=5.42 and F tab,0.05 = 3.29

Over CRD
•Step
2. compare F(rep) and Ftab. The result indicate Frep
>Ftab both at 1% and 5% significant level therefore, there has
been a significant effect of blocking.
Step 3. Compute the relative efficiency of blocking over CRD
= 1.63
• Because the degree of freedom of error is 15 which is less
than 20 the computed value above will be multiplied by
Coefficient K
= =0.982

Over CRD
•
Therefore
Adjustable R.E = = 1.63 x 0.092 =1.61

• The result indicates that the use of the RCBD
instead of a CRD increased experimental precision
by 61%.

v. Missing plot techniques
• This technique is used when one or more experimental
are missed due to some factor/reason plots
• Comprises the following steps:
• Step 1. Estimate the missing value using the formula:
M
• Where,
• M is missing value
• B0 is block total excluding missing data
• G0 is the grand total excluding missing plot
• r and t are the number of replications and treatments,
respectively

3.2.3. Latin Square Design (LSD)
Session outlines
a. Basic concepts
b. Randomization and layout
c. ANOVA and interpretation of results
d. Efficiency of row and column blocking
e. Missing plot techniques

a.Basic concepts
 Latin square design has a capacity to simultaneously handle two
known sources of variation among experimental unities.
 Unlike RCBD, Latin square design treats the sources of variation

as two independent blocking
 The two directional blocking in LS design, commonly referred to

as row-blocking and column-blocking
 Every treatment occurs only once in each row and column block.
 There is a possibility to estimate variation among row blocks and

column blocks to remove them from experimental error

a. Basic concepts…
 Examples of cases where LS design can be
applicable:
• Field trials in which the experimental area has two
fertility gradient running perpendicular to each other, or
has a unidirectional fertility gradient but also has
residual effects from previous trials
• Insecticide field trials where the insect migration has a

predictable direction that is perpendicular to the
dominant fertility gradient of the experimental field

 Examples …
• Greenhouse trials in which the experimental pots are
arranged in straight line perpendicular to the glass or screen
walls, such that the difference among rows of pots and the
distance from the glass wall (screen wall) are expected to be
the two major sources of variability among experimental
pots.
• Laboratory trials with replication over time, such that the

difference among experimental units conducted at the same
time and among those conducted over time and among
those conducted over constitute the two known sources of
variability
 Restrictions to use LS design
• In LS design the number of replication and treatments should be
equal. As the number of treatments is large the design becomes
impractical since the same number of replication is required
• LS design is applicable only for experiments in which the

number of treatments is not less than four and not more than
eight
• Because of such limitation it has not been widely used in

agricultural experiments despite its great potential of
controlling error.

b. Randomization and layout
• Step 1. Select a sample LS plan from (Appendix K) give in
Gomez and Gomez, 1984
• Step 2. Randomize the row arrangement of the plan

selected step 1, following one of the randomization
techniques
• Step 3. Randomize the column arrangement of the new

plan, using the same procedure used in step 2

c. ANOVA and Interpretation of
results
• There are four sources of variation in a LS design.
• These are:
- Row
- Column
- Treatment and
- Experimental error
• To illustrate the computation procedure for the analysis of

variance of a LS design, we use data on grain yield of three
promising maize hybrids (A, B,and D) and of a check (C) from an
advanced yield trial with a 4 X 4 latin square design (Table 2.7).
… ANALYSIS
• STEP 1. Arrange the raw data according to their row and
column designations, with the corresponding treatment
clearly specified for each observation, as shown in Table 2.7.
•
• STEP 2. Compute row totals (R), column totals (C), and the
grand total as shown in Table 2.7. Compute treatment totals
(T) and treatment means as follows

… ANALYSIS

… ANALYSIS

… ANALYSIS
• Step 3. Outline the analysis of variance
Source of Degree Sum of Mean Computed F Tabular F
variation of squares square 5% 1%
freedom (SS) (MS)
(DF)
Row
Column
Treatment
Error
Total

… ANALYSIS
• STEP 4. Using t to represent the number of treatments,
determine the degree for each source of variation as
Total df = t2-1
Row df = column df = treatment df= t-1
Error d.f= (t-1)(t-2)
• The error df can also be obtained by subtraction as

Error df = Total df-Row df-Column df-Treatment df
• STEP 5. compute the correction factor and the various sum of squares
CF = GT2/t2
Total SS = ∑X2 –CF
Row SS = ∑R2/t
Column SS = ∑C2 /t
Treatment SS = ∑t2 /t
Error SS = Total df-Row df-Column df-Treatment df
•… ANALYSIS
• STEP 6. Compute the Means squares for each sources of
variation by dividing the sum of squares by its
corresponding df

•… ANALYSIS
• STEP 7. Compute the F value for testing the treatment
effect
• STEP 8. Compare the computed F value with the tabular F value,

from Appendix E, with f, = treatment d.f. = t -1 and f2 = error d.f.= (t -1)
(t -2) and make conclusions following the guidelines in step 9 of Section
2.1.2.1.
For our example, the tabular F values, from Appendix E, with f, = 3 and f2
= 6 degrees of freedom, are 4.76 at the 5% level of significance and 9.78 at
the 1%level. Because the computed F value is higher than the tabular F
value at the 5% level of significance but lower than the tabular F value at
the 1% level, the treatment difference is significant at the 5% level of
significance
•… ANALYSIS
• STEP 9. compute the coefficient of variation as
x 100
• STEP 10. Enter all values computed in steps 4 to 9 in the

analysis of variance outline of step 3

•d. Efficiency of row and column blocking
• The efficiencies of both row-and column-blockings in a LS
design indicate the gain in precision relative to either the
CRD or the RCB design. The procedures are:
• STEP 1. Test the level of significance of the differences
among row-and column-blocks:
NB: after computing F values, compare them with their

corresponding F tab values (f1 = t-1 and f2 =(t-1)(t-2)) and
decide for row and column efficiency
•d. Efficiency…
• STEP 2. Compute the relative efficiency parameter of the LS
design relative to the CRD or RCB design:
• The relative efficiency of a LS design as compared to a
CRD:
• where E, is the row mean square, E, is the column mean

square, and E, is the error mean square in the LS analysis
of variance; and t is the number of treatments.

•d. Efficiency…
• STEP 2. ……
• The relative efficiency of a LS design as compared to a
RCB design can be computed in two ways-when rows are
considered as blocks, and when columns are considered
as blocks, of the RCB design.
• These two relative efficiencies are computed as:
• where Er, Ec, Ee, and t are as defined in the preceding formula

•d. Efficiency…
• STEP 2. ……
• When the error d.f. in the LS analysis of variance is less than
20, the R. E. value should be multiplied by the adjustment
factor k defined as:
Adjusted R.E = R.E x K

Session outlines
a) Basic concepts
b) Randomization and layout
c) Data arrangement, ANOVA and
Interpretation of results

a) Basic concepts
• Is the most commonly used Incomplete block design used in
agricultural research center
• Has sufficient flexibility to make its application simpler than most

other incomplete block designs.
• •Require that the number of treatments must be a perfect

square.
• •The most commonly used types of lattice designs are

• balanced lattice and
• partially balanced lattice designs.
4. Factorial Experimental
Designs
Chapter outlines
4.1. Factorial experiments
4.1.1. Concepts of factorial experiments
4.2.2. Factor and levels of factors
4.2. Types of factorial experiments
4.2.1. Randomization and lay-out of factorial experiments using
RCBD
4.2.1.1. ANOVA and interpretation of results of factorial
experiments using RCBD
4.2.2. Split Plot Design (SPD)
4.2.2.1. Basic concepts
4.2.2.2. Randomization and lay-out
4.2.2.3. Data arrangement, ANOVA and interpretation of result
… Factorial Experiment
Terminologies
• Factor is a set of related treatments
• Examples
• Nitrogen fertilizer (factor) when applied at
different doses (related treatments) or used
from different sources (related trts)
• Spacing (F) and the related trts are:-
• Insecticide :
• Variety of crop:
• Date of sowing:
• Seed rate:

Terminologies
 Levels of a factor
• is the different states or components making up a factor
• May be qualitative or quantitative
• Examples
 Rates of nitrogen fertilizer (R1, R2,…..Rt)
 The different spacing
 Types of insecticides
 Rates of insecticide
 Seed rates
 Individual Varieties in a variety experiment
 Sources of nitrogen
Mainly indicated by codes (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, …)
 0 is the base level or first level
 In CRD, RBD & LSD
• Only the effect of single set of treatments (one factor
alone) were estimated and compared
• Others were kept constant or uniform
• These type of experiments are called
simple/classical/uni-variate/single factor ept
 This is not the reality in biological organisms

(particularly in agriculture), the response of the
experimental unit may change if the other factor (s)
level is/are changed/included, interaction effect

Justification for FE
If you have independent variables that may interact with one
another, it is not appropriate to use a single-factor experiment.
A strategy employed to look at numerous independent
variables within the same experiment is use of the factorial
experiment.
Factorial experiments consist of two or more combinations of
different factors.
All factor combinations are of interest in the experiment.

Def.: When the effect of two or more interacting factors are
investigated in a single experiment simultaneously, such
experiment is called factorial experiment

Some advantages of FE
Two or more factors are evaluated at a time
Individuals & Interaction effect is studied
Efficiency increased
Reliable to make practical recommendation
Saves resources or economize it
Extends the range of validity of findings to a wider range.
Disadvantages
If treatment levels increases, homogeneity and precision decreases
Wastage of resources incase you are forced to include certain
factors
When treatments/factors are more, execution and analysis is
difficult

Randomization and lay-out
Use the way randomization is done for individual/basic
design by ignoring the factor composition & considering
all treatment combinations as if they are unrelated
ANOVA
“Individual design” procedures is used
In addition TrSS is partitioned in to factorial components
and their interaction

Types of FE
Names have been given based on the number of
factors and the levels of each factor
Examples
• Four factors each at two levels is called 2x2x2x2 or 24
factorial experiment
• Two factors each at three levels, the experiment is called
3x3 or 32 FE
• In general, if there are “n” factors each at “p” levels,
then it is called “Pn” FE
• Symmetrical FE

Types of FE
 Mixed factorial experiment
Factors have differing number of levels
The arrangement is described by their products
Examples
Three factors at 2, 3 & 4 levels
 2x3x4 FE
Four factors at 2, 3, 4 & 5 levels (2x3x4x5 FE)
 FE is simple expressed as a product of the factors
levels
 Treatments are called treatment combinations,
obtained as a products of each factor levels
Example
• An experiment with two factors in RBD involving
two rates of nitrogen fertilizer (N0 & N1) and two
depth of ploughing (D0 & D1), the treatment
combinations were replicated three times, were
conducted on sugar beat at werer agricultural
research center and the result in yield is indicated
in table below. Analyze the data by showing all
necessary steps

Yield in t/ha, RCBD
R-I R-II R-III Totals
N-levels (T)
Depth of plough
Do
No 13.8 13.2 13.9 40.9

N1 16.9 15.9 15.0 47.8
D1
No 14.0 14.2 14.2 42.4
N1 16.8 16.9
16.5 50.2 146
ANOVA
1. Treatment combination
1. NoDo
2. N1Do
3. NoD1
4. N1D1
2. Denote the replication by “r”, levels of factor A (i.e.,

Nitrogen) by “a” & the levels of factor B (i.e., plough) by
“b” & outline ANOVA table
F-values
SV DF SS MS Fcal Ftable at
5% 1%
Block r-1
Trts ab-1
A a-1
B b-1
AxB (a-1)(b-1)
Error (r-1) (ab-1)
Total abr-1
4. Determine totals (treatment, replications & grand)
(see table)
5. Compute CF
CF = G2/abr = (181.3)2/12 = 2739.14
6. Calculate SS
TSS = ∑(yji)2-CF = 21.55
RSS = ∑(Ri)2/ab-CF = 0.47
TrSS = ∑(Ti)2/r-CF = 19.34
ESS = 21.55-0.47-19.34 = 1.74

7. Bivariate table for factor A & B with their totals computed
Yield (AB)
Plough (B) Total (A)
Nitrogen (A) D0 D1 (mean)
No 40.9 42.4 83.3 (13.88)

N1 47.8 50.2 98.0 (16.33)
Total (B) 88.7 92.6 181.30
Mean 14.78 15.43 150
8. Compute SS for factorial components
ASS = ∑(Ai)2/rb-CF = 18.01
BSS = ∑(Bi)2/ra-CF = 1.27
ABSS = ∑(ABi)2/r-CF - ASS - BSS = 0.06
9. MS = SS/df
TrMS = TrSS/ab-1 = 19.34/3 = 6.45
AMS = ASS/a-1 = 18.01/1 = 18.01
BMS = BSS/b-1 = 1.27
ABMS = 0.06
EMS = 0.29

10. F values
F cal
F (A) = AMS/EMS = 62.10**
 F (B) = 4.38NS
 F (AB) = 0.21NS
F table, 5.99 (5%) and 13.74 (1%)
11. Conclusion: The main effect of nitrogen is highly
significantly different. The main effect of ploughing
depth and the interaction effect of nitrogen and
plough depth are non significantly different.
12. Mean separation
5. Comparison Between Treatment
Means
Chapter outlines
1.Pair comparison
1.Least significant difference test (LSD)
2.Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT)
2.Group comparison

6: Correlation And Regression Analysis
Chapter outlines
1. Simple correlation analysis

2. Linear regression analysis

6: Correlation And Regression Analysis
1. Simple correlation analysis
• X and Y are two measurable variable (yield (kg/ha) & rain
fall (mm))
Important questions that can arise in our mind
I. Is there a relationship between X and Y?
II.Can I quantify the relationship b/n X and Y?
III.
Can I test the significance?
IV.If the observed correlation is sig. how to interpret and
use it further?
V. If X is known can Y estimated?
 Answered by CR analysis

Cont’d
Variables in experimentation
• Treatments (independent v.)
• Response (dependent v.)
• There is association between these variables
• Statistical procedure used to know the amount and
nature of the such association is called CR analysis
• Classified based on
• number of variables as simple/multiple
• Relationship as linear/non-linear

Definitions
Simple Correlation Multiple Correlation
If the change in one variable is a measure of the
affects the other variable (s),
the variables are said to be degree and nature of
correlated. linear relationship
The measure/degree of between more than
association/relationship two variables (multiple
between two or more correlation)
variables (correlation)
 Explains the relationship
between variables
 is a measure of the degree
and nature of linear
relationship between two
variables (Simple correlation)
Definitions
Positive/direct Negative/inverse
Correlation Correlation
 The two measurable • The two measurable
variables X and Y variables, X and Y, moves in
changes in the same opposite direction
direction. • Example: pest and yield,
• Example: income and erosion and yield, shorter
expenditure wheat ear head and grain
yield, temperature and
• N and protein content moisture content of the
of leaf soil, etc

Pearson’s correlation co-efficient
• It is the statistical measure of the nature (direction) and
magnitude of the association between the two measurable
variables, X and Y.
• Named after Karl Person
• Denoted by symbol “ r ” for sample and p (rho) for
population.
• Characteristics of ‘r’
• Takes value between -1 and +1
• r is unit less number
• r is independent of change of scale (multiply or divide by
constant no.) and origin (add or subtract by constant no.)
• r is the geometric mean of two regression co-efficient
• r = o, no correlation, r = -1 perfect negative and r = +1
perfect positive correlation.

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Wolkite University

College of Agriculture and Natural Resource

Course Title: Principles, Design and Analysis of

Prepared By Bewuket G.(MSc.) 1

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• They belong to the following three categories according to the

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• E.g. find the mean height of sweet corn if the measured

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•The geometric mean of these 5 values will be

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• Example: find the harmonic mean of the height of sweet

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• Thus, the median divides a frequency distribution into two

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• Example 3. Calculate of median from the data given

3.30 3.62 3.76

3.55 3.72 3.88

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2. The data set 3,5,8,10,12,15 and 16 has no mode

3. The data set 2,3,4,4,4,5,5,7,7,7,and 9 has two modes 4

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• However, the variance computed using n usually

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• It is defined as the square root of the mean of the

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• Includes linear regression analyses, ANOVA,

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• Hypothesis in general attempts to explain, predict, and

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b. Alternate hypothesis (H1)

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• Hypothesis testing is a decision making process for evaluating

• Design of experiment: is a standard procedure that any

• Hypothesis can be tested through one or more of the following

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• Possible outcomes of hypothesis testing

Reject Error Correct

Do not reject Correct Error

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• The degree of freedom are df = n-1

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2. Within group variance estimate: made by computing the

 If the means differ significantly, the between group variance

 since the variances are compared, the procedure is known

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• These are complementary to each other in trying to

• At the same time retain the distinctive features of

Fig. Treatments with no randomization