DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

(EIE418)

Prof. E. Adetiba (Ph.D, R.Engr.(COREN))

Department of Electrical & Information Engineering,
College of Engineering, Covenant University, Ota,
Ogun State, Nigeria.
 MODULE 5

Multiplexing and Multiple Access

5.1 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allow
simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link.
• It is commonly used to separate different users
such that they share the same resource
without interference.
• Currently, there are high-bandwidth
media(such as optical fiber and microwaves)
with bandwidths that are far in excess of what
is needed for an average signal to be
transmitted.
• If the bandwidth of a link is greater than the
bandwidth needs of the devices connected to
it, the bandwidth is wasted.
• Bandwidth is one of the most precious
resources in data communication, thus, an
efficient system need to maximize its
utilization.

Fig. 5.1: Functioning of Multiplexing

• Fig. 5.1 depicts the functioning of
multiplexing in general.
• The multiplexer is connected to the
demultiplexer by a single data link.
• The multiplexer combines (multiplexes)
data from these ‘n’ input lines and
transmits them through the high
capacity data link, which is being
demultiplexed at the other end and is
delivered to the appropriate output
lines.
• We will consider the three basic multiplexing
techniques, namely:
i) Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)
ii) Wavelength Division Multiplexing(WDM)
iii) Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)
5.1.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM)
• In FDM, the available bandwidth of a single
physical medium is subdivided into several
independent frequency channels.
• Independent message signals are translated
into different frequency bands using
modulation techniques, which are combined
by a linear summing circuit in the
multiplexer to a composite signal, which is
then transmitted along the single channel.
• Carrier frequencies are separated in FDM by
sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the
modulated signal.
• These bandwidth ranges are the channels through
which the various signals travel.

Fig. 5.2: Channels in Frequency Division Multiplexing

• Guard Bands: In FDM, there are guard bands that
are strips of unused bandwidth through which
channels are separated to prevent signals from
overlapping(See Fig. 5.3).

Fig. 5.3: Guard Bands in FDM

• Multiplexing Process in FDM: This is illustrated in
Fig. 5.4.

Fig. 5.4: Multiplexing Process in FDM

• Each source generates a signal of a similar
frequency range.

• In the multiplexer, these similar signals

modulate different carrier frequencies.

• The resulting modulated signals are then

combined into a single composite signal
that is sent out over a media link that has
enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
• Demultiplexing Process in FDM: As
shown in Fig 5.5, the demultiplexer uses
combination of filters to decompose the
multiplexed signal into its constituent
component signals.
• The individual signals are then sent to a
demodulator that separates them from
their carriers and passes them to the
output lines.
Fig. 5.5: Demultiplexing Process in FDM
• Let’s assume that a voice channel
occupies a bandwidth of 4 kHz and
there is no guard band, the FDM
configuration in Fig. 5.6 is required
to combine three voice channels into
a link with a bandwidth of 12 kHz,
which spans from 20 to 32 kHz.
Voice Channel 1

Voice Channel 2

Voice Channel 3

Voice
Channel 1

Voice
Channel 2

Voice
Channel 3

Fig. 5.6: FDM for a Typical Voice Channel

Example 5.1.1
You are to multiplex 5 channels, each
with a 100-kHz bandwidth, calculate
the minimum bandwidth of the link if
there is a guard band of 10 kHz
between the channels to prevent
interference?
Solution
Drawing from Fig. 5.3.,
If No. of Channels = 5
The minimum guard band = 4
Therefore,the minimum link bandwidth = (5
× 100) + (4 × 10) = 540 kHz
Exercise 5.1.1
You need to multiplex 10 voice
channels with guard bands of 500Hz
using FDM. i) Calculate the required
bandwidth ii) Draw the spectrum for
this FDM scheme.
• A common application of FDM is AM and FM
radio broadcasting.
• A special band from 530 to 1700 kHz is assigned
to AM radio and all radio stations need to share
this band.
• Each AM station needs 10 kHz of bandwidth with
each station using a different carrier frequency.
• FM has a wider band of 88 to 108 MHz with each
station having a bandwidth of 200 kHz.
• Television broadcasting and first generation of
cellular telephones also use FDM.
5.1.2 Wavelength Division
Multiplexing(WDM)
• WDM is conceptually same as the FDM,
except that the multiplexing and
demultiplexing involves light signals
transmitted through fibre-optic channels.
WDM is also called Optical FDM.

• In both FDM and WDM, different signals of

different frequencies are combined. However,
the frequencies in WDM are very high.
• WDM is designed to utilize the high data rate
capability of fibre-optic cable(with each
individual light carrier supporting data rates
of up to 10 Gbps).

• Using a fiber-optic cable for a single line

wastes the available bandwidth and WDM
thus allows the combination of several lines
into one.
 Fig. 5.7: Wavelength Division Multiplexing

• As shown in Fig. 5.7, very narrow bands of

light from different sources are combined to
make a wider band of light. At the receiver,
the signals are separated by the demultiplexer.
5.1.3 Time Division Multiplexing(TDM)
• In FDM, all signals operate at the same time with
different frequencies, but in Time Division Multiplexing
(TDM), all signals operate with same frequency at
different times.

• TDM is a digital process that allows several connections

to share the high bandwidth of a link.
• A conceptual view of TDM is shown in Fig. 5.8. As
shown, the same link is used just like in FDM, but in
TDM, the link is sectioned by time rather than by
frequency.
• Thus, portions of signals 1, 2, 3, and 4 occupy the link
sequentially.
Input Output
Signals Signals

Fig. 5.8: Time Division Multiplexing

• TDM is divided into two schemes, namely:
synchronous TDM and statistical TDM.

5.1.3.1 Synchronous TDM

• In Synchronous TDM, each time slot is pre-
assigned to a fixed source and all the time slots
are transmitted irrespective of whether the
sources have any data to send or not.
• the duration of an output time slot is n times
shorter than the duration of an input time slot. If
an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is
T/n s, where n is the number of connections.
• Figure 5.9 shows an example of synchronous TDM
where n is 3.

Fig. 5.9: Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing

• The data rate of the output link must be n times the

data rate of a connection to guarantee the flow of data.
• Time slots are grouped into frames. A
frame consists of one complete cycle of
time slots, with one slot dedicated to
each sending device (see Fig. 5.9).

• In a system with n input lines, each

frame has n slots, with each slot
allocated to carrying data from a
specific input line.
Example 5.1.2
The data rate for each input
connection in a synchronous TDM
with 3 lines is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time
is multiplexed, what is the duration of
i) each input slot, ii) each output slot,
and iii) each frame?
Solution
i) The data rate of each input connection = 1 kbps
\ bit duration = 1/1000 s = 1 ms.
duration of the input time slot = 1 ms (which is
same as bit duration).
ii) The duration of each output time slot is one-third
of the input time slot.
\
duration of the output time slot = 1/3 ms.
iii) Each frame carries three output time slots.
\ So the duration of a frame = 3 × 1/3 ms = 1 ms.
the duration of a frame is the same as the
duration of an input unit.
Example 5.1.3
Figure 5.10 below shows synchronous TDM with a
data stream for each input and one data stream for
the output, and the unit of data is 1 bit. Find the:
i)input bit duration, ii) output bit duration,
ii)output bit rate, and iv) output frame rate.

Fig. 5.10: Example 5.2

Solution
i) The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit
rate: 1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.
ii) The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input
bit duration = 1/4 μs.
iii) The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit
duration = 4 Mbps.
Alternatively, the output bit rate can be deduced
from the fact that the output rate is 4 times(since
there are four lines) as fast as any input rate;
so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps.
iv) The frame rate is always the same as any input
rate.
\ the frame rate = 1,000,000 frames per second.
• Other vital concepts in synchronous TDM are
described as follows:
a) Interleaving
• As shown in Fig. 5.11, TDM can be illustrated as
two fast-rotating switches, one on the
multiplexing side and the other on the
demultiplexing side.

Fig. 5.11: Interleaving in Synchronous TDM

• As shown, the switches are synchronized and
rotate at the same speed, but in opposite
directions.
• As the switch opens in front of a connection on
the multiplexing side, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This
process is called interleaving.
• On the demultiplexing side, as the switch opens in
front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
b) Empty Slots
• Synchronous TDM is not as efficient as it could be
because of the empty slot syndrome. This implies
that if a source does not have data to send, the
corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.
• This is illustrated in Figure 5.12 in which no frame
is full because one of the input lines has no data to
send and one slot in another input line has
discontinuous data.

Fig. 5.12: Empty Slots in Synchronous TDM

c) Data Rate Management
• We have assumed hitherto that the data
rates of all input lines were the same.
However, another problem with TDM is how
to handle a disparity in the input data rates.
• The three strategies that are used if data
rates are not the same in TDM are multilevel
multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and
pulse stuffing.
• Combinations of these strategies can also be
used.
i) multilevel multiplexing
• This technique is used when the data rate
of an input line is a multiple of others.
• As shown in Fig. 5.13, there are two inputs
of 20 kbps and three inputs of 40 kbps.
The first two input lines can be
multiplexed together to provide a data
rate equal to the last three. Thus, a second
level of multiplexing can create an output
of 160 kbps.
Fig. 5.12: Multilevel Multiplexing
ii) multiple-slot allocation
• As shown in Fig. 5.13, it is possible to
have an input line that has a data rate,
which is a multiple of another input.
• The input line with a 50-kbps data rate (in
Fig. 5.13) can be given two slots in the
output. To achieve this, we have to insert
a demultiplexer in the line to make two
inputs out of one.
Fig. 5.13: Multiple Slot Allocation
iii) Pulse Stuffing
• Often, the bit rates of sources are not multiple
integers of each other. Thus, the previous two
techniques cannot be applied.
• One solution is to make the highest input data
rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy
bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will
increase their rates.
• This technique is called pulse stuffing.
• It is also called bit padding or bit stuffing.
• Figure 5.14 is a diagrammatic illustration of this
technique. The input with a data rate of 46 is
pulse-stuffed to increase the rate to 50 kbps, and
multiplexing can then take place.

Fig. 5.14: Pulse Stuffing

d) Frame Synchronizing
• Synchronization between the multiplexer and
demultiplexer is a major issue in Synchronous
TDM.
• If the multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not
synchronized, a bit belonging to one channel may
be received by the wrong channel.
• Thus, one or more synchronization bits are usually
added to the beginning of each frame.
• These bits are called framing bits.
• They follow a pattern from frame to frame, which
allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the
incoming stream in order to separate the time
slots accurately.
• The synchronization information often consists of
1 bit per frame, which alternates between 0 and 1
as illustrated in Figure 5.15.

Fig. 5.15: Framing Bits

Example 5.1.4
There are four sources, each creating 250 characters
per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and
1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame, Calculate
the following:
i) data rate of each source,
ii) duration of each character in each source,
iii) frame rate,
iv) duration of each frame,
v) number of bits in each frame,
vi) the data rate of the link.
Solution
i)The data rate of each source = 250×8 = 2000bps
= 2kbps.
ii) Each source sends 250 characters per second;
the duration of a character = 1/250 s = 4 ms.
iii) Each frame has one character from each source,
thus, the link needs to send 250 frames per second
to keep the transmission rate of each source.
iv) The duration of each frame = 1/250 s = 4 ms.
Note:
duration of each frame = duration of each character
coming from each source.
v) Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra
synchronizing bit.
Thus, each frame = (4 × 8) + 1 = 33 bits.

vi) The link sends 250 frames per second, and each
frame contains 33 bits.
Thus,
data rate of the link = 250 × 33 = 8250 bps = 8.25kbps
5.1.3.2 Statistical TDM
• In statistical TDM, slots are dynamically allocated to
improve bandwidth efficiency.

• Only when an input line has a slot’s worth of data to

send is it given a slot in the output frame. The
number of slots in each frame is less than the
number of input lines.

• Statistical TDM overcomes the synchronous TDM

challenge in which each input has a reserved slot in
the output frame either it has or does not have data
to send.
• Figure 5.16 shows an illustration of both
synchronous and a statistical TDM.

Fig. 5.16: Comparison of Synchronous and Statistical TDM

 Table 5.1: Differences Between Statistical and Synchronous TDM
S/N Feature Statistical TDM Synchronous TDM
1 Addressing A slot needs to carry data as well as An output slot is totally
the address of the destination. occupied by data.
There is no fixed relationship
between the inputs and outputs
because there are no pre-assigned
or reserved slots.
2 Slot Size A block of data is usually many The slot size depends
bytes while the address is just a solely on the size of data.
few bytes.
3 Synchronization The frames need not be Frames need to be
Bit synchronized, so there is no need synchronized
for synchronization bits.

4 Bandwidth The capacity of the link is normally The capacity of the link
less than the sum of the capacities normally corresponds
of each channel. with the sum of the
capacities of each channel
 Class Exercise 5.1
(To be submitted after 20 minutes – You are free to open
your notebooks or slides but you must maintain absolute
silence)
1) With the aid of well labeled diagrams and brief
explanations, distinguish between multilevel
TDM, multiple-slot TDM, and pulse-stuffed TDM.

2) Assume that a voice channel occupies a

bandwidth of 4 kHz and we need to multiplex 15
voice channels with guard bands of 500 Hz using
FDM. Calculate the required bandwidth.
3) We need to use synchronous TDM and combine
20 digital sources, each of 100 Kbps. Each output
slot carries 1 bit from each digital source, but one
extra bit is added to each frame for synchronization.
Answer the following questions:
i) Draw the schematic of the synchronous TDM.
ii) What is the size of an output frame in bits?
iii) What is the output frame rate?
iv) What is the duration of an output frame?
Module 5.1 - Assignment
1) Six 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together
using synchronous TDM. Compute the following
parameters for the scheme:
(i) Duration of 1 bit before multiplexing.
(ii) Transmission rate of the link.
(iii) Duration of a time slot.
(iv) The duration of a frame.
2) Ten sources, six with a bit rate of 200 kbps and
four with a bit rate of 400 kbps, are to be combined
using multilevel TDM with no synchronizing bits.
Answer the following questions:
i) What is the size of a frame in bits?
ii) What is the frame rate?
iii) What is the duration of a frame?
iv) What is the data rate?

NOTE: The Assignment MUST be submitted on

Moodle on or before 2nd March, 2021.
5.1.3.3 Simulation of TDM in MATLAB/SIMULINK
• TDM (and other multiplexing schemes) can be
simulated in MATLAB/Simulink.
• A sample Simulink model for TDM is shown in
Fig. 5.17.
• Reproduce the model and configure each block
with the parameter configurations in Fig. 5.18
(a-h). Your models and outputs will be graded
as Class Exercise on Tuesday 2nd March, 2021.
• Note that a compact Refresher Tutorial on
Simulink will be made available to you.
Fig. 5.17: TDM Simulink Model
• Figs. 5.18a-h show the parameter configurations
windows for the blocks:
a) Message Signal1
b) Message Signal2
c) Pulse Generator
d) Delay
e) Mux
f) Demux
g) Reconstruction Filter1
h) Reconstruction Filter2
• Scopes are also shown in Fig. 5.17 to display the
outputs as appropriate.
 a b
Fig. 5.18: Parameters Configurations for TDM Simulink Model Blocks
 c d
Fig. 5.18: Parameters Configurations for TDM Simulink Model Blocks
 e f

Fig. 5.18: Parameters Configurations for TDM Simulink Model Blocks

 g h
Fig. 5.18: Parameters Configurations for TDM Simulink Model Blocks
5.2 Multiple Access
• The data link layer (i.e. the second layer in the
OSI model) has two sub-layers.

• The upper sub-layer that is responsible for flow

and error control is called the data link control or
logical link control layer.

• The lower sub-layer that is responsible for

multiple access resolution is called the Media
Access Control (MAC) layer.
• Multiple access involves the use of multiplexing
techniques to provide communication service to
multiple users over a single channel/link. It allows
for many users at one time by sharing a finite
amount of spectrum.

• When nodes are connected and use a common

link (called a multipoint or broadcast link), a
multiple access protocol is needed to coordinate
access to the link.
• Note that the problem of controlling multiple access to
the medium/link is similar to the rules of speaking in
an assembly/meeting.

• Procedures/Protocols are established to guarantee

that the right to speak is upheld and ensure that - two
people do not speak at the same time, there is no
interruption, no one monopolizes the discussion, and
etc.

• Many formal protocols have been developed to handle

multiple access to a shared medium/link. They are
categorized into three groups as shown in Fig. 5.2.1
Fig. 5.2.1: Categories of Multiple Access Protocols
5.2.1 Random Access Protocols
• In random-access or contention protocols, no
station is superior to another station and none is
assigned control over another.
• Two features give this method its name:
i) There is no scheduled time for a station to
transmit. Transmission is random among the
stations. That is why these methods are called
random access.
ii) There are no rules that specify which station
should send next. Stations compete with one
another to access the medium. That is why these
methods are also called contention methods.
• At each instance, a station that has data to send uses
a procedure defined by the protocol to make a
decision on whether or not to send.
• This decision depends on the state of the medium
(idle or busy).
• Examples of random-access protocols are:
i) ALOHA
• It is the earliest random access protocol, which was
developed at the University of Hawaii in early 1970.
• It was designed for WLAN, but it can be used on any
shared medium.
• The two types of ALOHA are Pure ALOHA and Slotted
ALOHA.
ii) Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)
• This protocol was developed to minimize the chance
of collision and increase access performance.
• The chance of collision can be reduced if a station
senses the medium before trying to use it.
• CSMA requires that each station first listen to the
medium (or check the state of the medium) before
sending.
• It is based on the principle of “sense before
transmit” or “listen before talk.”
• Note that CSMA can reduce the possibility of
collision, but it cannot eliminate it.
iii) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD)
• CSMA/CD augments the CSMA protocol to handle
collision since the implementation of CSMA does
not specify any procedure when there is collision.

• In CSMA/CD, a station monitors the medium after

it sends a frame to see if the transmission was
successful, if yes, the station is finished.

• However, if there is a collision, the frame is sent

again.
iv) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
• CSMA/CA was invented for wireless networks
and collisions are avoided through the
following three strategies:
Interframe space;
Contention window; and
Acknowledgments.
5.2.2 Controlled Access Protocols
• In controlled access protocols, the stations/nodes
consult one another to find which station/node
has the right to send.
• A station/node cannot send unless it has been
authorized by other stations/nodes.
• Examples of controlled access protocols are
Reservation, Polling and Token Passing.
i) Reservation
• In the reservation controlled access protocol, a
station needs to make a reservation before
sending data.
• Time is divided into intervals and in each interval,
a reservation frame precedes the data frames sent
in that interval.
• If there are N stations in the system, there are
exactly N reservation minislots in the reservation
frame and each minislot belongs to a station.
• When a station needs to send a data frame, it
makes a reservation in its own minislot.
• The stations that have made reservations can send
their data frames after the reservation frame.

Fig. 5.2.2: Reservation Controlled Access Protocol

• Fig. 5.2.2 shows a situation with five stations and a
five-minislot reservation frame.
• In the first interval, only stations 1, 3, and 4 have
made reservations while in the second interval, only
station 1 has made a reservation.

ii) Polling
• Polling works with topologies in which one device is
designated as a primary station and the other
devices are secondary stations.
• All data exchanges must be made through the
primary device even when the ultimate destination
is a secondary device.
• The primary device controls the link while
the secondary devices follow its
instructions. Thus, it is up to the primary
device to determine, which device is
allowed to use the channel at a given time.

• The drawback of Polling controlled access

protocol is that if the primary station fails,
the system goes down.
 Fig. 5.2.3: Polling Controlled Access Protocol

• As shown in Fig. 5.2.3, this method uses

poll and select functions to prevent
collisions.
• Poll function: is used by the primary device to
solicit transmissions from the secondary devices.
• When the primary is ready to receive data, it must
ask (poll) each device in turn if it has anything to
send.
• If the response is negative (a NAK frame), then the
primary polls the next secondary in the same
manner until it finds one with data to send.
• When the response is positive (a data frame), the
primary reads the frame and returns an
acknowledgment (ACK frame), verifying its
receipt.
• Select Function: This is used whenever the
primary device has something to send.
• Before sending data, the primary creates and
transmits a select (SEL) frame, one field of which
includes the address of the intended secondary
station.
ii) Token Passing
• In this controlled access protocol, the stations in a
network are organized in a logical ring. Hence, for
each station, there is a predecessor and a
successor.

• The predecessor is the station which is logically

before the station in the ring; the successor is the
station which is after the station in the ring.

• The current station is the one that is accessing the

channel now.
• The right to this access has been passed from the
predecessor to the current station while the right
will be passed to the successor when the current
station has no more data to send.
• To gain the right of access, a special packet called a
token circulates through the ring. The possession
of the token gives the station the right to access
the channel and send its data.
• Figure 5.2.4 shows four different physical
topologies that can create a logical ring. This
implies that stations do not have to be physically
connected in a ring; the ring can be a logical one.
 a. Physical ring b. Dual ring

c. Bus ring
d. Star ring

Fig. 5.2.4: Logical ring and physical topologies in token-

passing controlled access method
• Physical ring topology: In this topology,
when a station sends the token to its
successor, the token cannot be seen by
other stations; the successor is the next
one in line.
• The problem with this topology is that if
one of the links between two adjacent
stations fails, the whole system fails.
• Dual ring topology: This topology uses a second
(i.e. auxiliary) ring, which operates in the reverse
direction compared with the main ring.
• The second ring is for emergencies only so that if
one of the links in the main ring fails, the system
automatically combines the two rings to form a
temporary ring.
• After the failed link is restored, the auxiliary ring
becomes idle again.
• The high-speed Token Ring networks called FDDI
(Fiber Distributed Data Interface) and CDDI (Copper
Distributed Data Interface) use this topology.
• Bus ring topology: also called a token bus, the
stations are connected to a single cable called a bus.
They make a logical ring, because each station
knows the address of its successor (and also
predecessor for token management purposes).
• When a station has finished sending its data, it
releases the token and inserts the address of its
successor in the token.
• Only the station with the address matching the
destination address of the token gets the token to
access the shared media.
• The Token Bus LAN, standardized by IEEE, uses this
topology.
• Star ring topology: Here, the physical topology is a
star and there is a hub, which acts as the
connector.
• The wiring inside the hub makes the ring and the
stations/nodes are connected to this ring through
the two wire connections.
• This topology makes the network less prone to
failure because if a link goes down, it will be
bypassed by the hub and the rest of the stations
can operate. Also adding and removing stations
from the ring is easier.
• This topology is used in the Token Ring LAN
designed by IBM.
5.2.3 Channelization Protocols
• Channelization also known as Channel
Partition is a multiple access protocol in
which the available bandwidth of a link is
shared in time, frequency, or through code,
among different stations.

• Examples of this protocol are Frequency

Division Multiple Access (FDMA), Time
Division Multiple Access (TDMA) and Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA).
i) Frequency Division Multiple Access(FDMA)
• In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common
channel is divided into frequency bands that are
separated by guard bands.
• This implies that each frequency band is reserved
for a specific station/node, and it belongs to the
station all the time.
• Each station also uses a bandpass filter to confine
the transmitter frequencies to the assigned bands.
• FDMA is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.5.
Fig. 5.2.5: Frequency Division Multiple Access
• Although FDMA and Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM) conceptually seem
similar, there are differences between
them.
• FDM as earlier explained is a physical
layer technique that combines the loads
from low- bandwidth channels and
transmits them by using a high-
bandwidth channel.
• FDMA, on the other hand, is an access
method in the data-link layer. The data-
link layer in each station tells its physical
layer to make a bandpass signal from
the data passed to it.
• The signal must be created in the
allocated band through automatic
bandpass filtering and they are mixed
when they are sent to the common
channel.
ii) Time Division Multiple Access(TDMA)
• In TDMA, the stations share the bandwidth
of the channel in time. Each station is
allocated a time slot during which it can
send data and each station transmits its data
in its assigned time slot.
• In this protocol, the bandwidth is just one
channel that is timeshared between
different stations.
• TDMA is illustrated in Fig. 5.2.6.
Fig. 5.2.6: Time Division Multiple Access
• Achieving synchronization between the different
stations is the main problem with TDMA.
• The propagation delay introduced if the stations
are spread over a large area makes it difficult for
each station to know the beginning of its slot
and the location of its slot.
• Guard times are inserted to compensate for the
delays.
• In order to achieve synchronization, some
synchronization bits (or preamble bits) are
introduced at the beginning of each slot.
• TDMA and time-division multiplexing (TDM) seem
conceptually the same but there are differences
between them.
• As earlier explained, TDM is a physical layer technique
that combines the data from slower channels and
transmits them by using a faster channel. The process
uses a physical multiplexer that interleaves data units
from each channel.
• However, TDMA is a multiple access method in the
data-link layer. With TDMA, the data-link layer in each
station tells its physical layer to use the allocated time
slot.
• Note that Global System for Mobile Communication
(GSM) uses both TDMA and FDMA.
Example 5.2.1
The global system for mobile communications (GSM)
utilizes the frequency band 935–960 MHz for the
forward link and frequency range 890–915 MHz for
the reverse link. Each 25-MHz band is broken into
radio channels of 200 kHz. Each radio channel
consists of 8 time slots. If no guard band is assumed,
find the number of simultaneous users that can be
accommodated in GSM.
Solution
• Total number of channels = 25x106 /200x103
= 125 channels
• Each channel = 8 time slots or users.
• 125 channels = (125 x 8) users = 1,000 users.
ii) Code Division Multiple Access(CDMA)
• In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions
simultaneously.
• It differs from FDMA in that only one channel
occupies the entire bandwidth of the link.
• It differs from TDMA in that all stations can send
data simultaneously.
• It was originally designed by Qualcomm in the U.S.
and it is the common platform on which 3G
technologies are built.
• The idea behind coding in CDMA is illustrated with
Fig. 5.2.7
Fig. 5.2.7: Illustration of Communication with Code in
CDMA
• Assume there are four stations/nodes,= 1, 2, 3,
and 4, connected to the same channel as shown in
Fig. 5.2.7.
• The data from station 1 are d1, from station 2 are
d2, station 3 are d3 and station 4 is d4.
• The code that is assigned to the station 1 is c1, to
station 2 is c2, station 3 is c3 and station 4 is c4 .
• It is assumed that the assigned codes have two
properties:
i) If we multiply each code by another, we get 0 and
ii) If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the
number of stations).
• Assuming station 2 wants to hear what station
1 is saying. It multiplies the data on the
channel by c1, as shown on the common
channel in Fig. 5.2.7.
• Because (c1 * c1) is 4, but (c2 * c1), (c3 * c1),
and (c4 * c1) are all 0s, station 2 divides the
result by 4 to get the data from station 1.
i.e.
data=(d1*c1 + d2*c2 +d3*c3 +d4*c4)⋅c1
= (d1*c1*c1 + d2*c2*c1 +d3*c3*c1 +d4*c4*c1)
=4*d1
 Class Exercise 5.2.1
(Last 15minutes of the Class)
1) Prove that a receiving CDMA node can get the data
sent by a specific sender if it multiplies the entire
data on the channel by the sender’s code and then
divides it by the number of nodes.
2) a. List the strategies that are used for collission
avoidance in CSMA/CA
b. What is the purpose of NAV in CSMA/CA?

Note: This Class Exercise must be submitted to the

Lecturer before you leave the class. It forms part of your
CA.