structural

Question and Answer

Samples and Techniques
The amount of force, N

magnitude
It refers to the orientation of its path
or line of action

direction
It is usually described by the angle that
the line of action makes with some
reference.
Refers to the manner in which it acts
along its line of action.

sense
Stress at which material specimen
breaks.

Rupture strength
The maximum unit stress permitted for a material in the
design of a structural member, usually a fraction of the
material’s elastic limit, yield strength or ultimate strength.

Allowable stress/allowable unit stress/

or working stress
The range of unit stresses for which a
material exhibits elastic deformation

Elastic range
Distance from center of moment to force, shortest or
perpendicular distance from the center f moment to line of
action.

Moment arm
Force x distance

moment
Moment can be about any point called
CENTER OF MOMENT
Example is a beam supporting a column

Concentrated load
A series of uniform concentrated loads, or
more uniformly spaced concentrated load

Uniform loads
Varying load, moment load

Other loads
Pulls away from a joint

tension
Pulls towards joint

compression
For connections

shear
ASTM

American Society for Testing and

Materials
ACI

American Concrete Institute

According to ACI code, the strain in concrete
reaches _____________, it begins to crack.

0.003, 3/1000 (mm)

AISM

American Institute for Steel

Construction
If a grade 60 steel (fy=60 ksi=414 Mpa) reaches a
strain ____________, it begins to crack.

0.0021 (2.1 mm)

 Stress-Strain Diagram

A graphic representation of the relationship between unit

stress values and the corresponding unit strain for a specific
material.
Maximum stress which the material springs back
to the original length when the load is released.

Proportional limit
Maximum stress below which the material does not return to
its original length but has incurred a permanent deformation
we call permanent set

Elastic limit
He stress wherein the deformation increases without any
increase in the load, the material at some portion shows a
decrease in its cross section.

Yield point
The maximum stress that can be attained
immediately before actual failure or rupture.

Ultimate strength
A temporary change in the dimensions or shape of a body
produced by a stress less than the elastic limit of the
material.

Elastic deformation.
The property of material that causes it to rupture suddenly
with little evident deformation. Lack the plastic behavior
of the ductile materials.

brittleness
The property of the material that enables it to undergo
plastic deformation after being stressed beyond the elastic
limit and before rupturing.

Ductility
Ductility is a desirable property of a
structural material since plastic
behavior is an indicator of reserve
strength and can serve as a visual
warning of impeding failure.
The property of a material that enables it to deform in
response to an applied force and to recover its original size
and shape upon removal of the force.

elasticity
The ability of a material to regain and rebound
to original shape when the lad is released.

malleability
The property of a material that enables it to absorb energy
before rupturing, represented by the areas under the stress-
strain curve derived from a tensile test of the material.

toughness
Ductile materials are tougher that brittle
materials
A coefficient of elasticity of a material expressing the ration
between a unit stress and the corresponding unit strain
caused by the stress.

Modulus of elasticity
Also called, COEFFICIENT OF ELASTICITY,
ELASTIC MODULUS
The inelastic strain remaining in a material after
complete release of the stress producing deformation.

Permanent set
The behavior an increased rate of load application
can cause in normally ductile material.

Strain-Rate effect
the brittle behavior low temperatures
can cause in a normally ductile material

Temperature effect
The time dependent decrease in stress in a
constrained material under a constant load.

Stress relaxation
The gradual permanent deformation of a body produced by
continued application of stress or prolonged exposure to
heat.

Creep
Creep deformation in concrete structure
continues over time and can be
significantly greater that the initial
elastic deflection.
The weakening or failure of material at a stress below the
elastic limit when subjected to a repeated series of
stresses.

Fatigue
Structural properties of A36 Steel :
modulus of elasticity :

29,000 Ksi
Weight:
Water = 1000kg/meter cube
Steel = 7850kg/ meter cube
Concrete = 2400kg/ meter cube

Weight = density x volume

The act f stretching or state of being pulled apart,
resulting in the elongation of an elastic body.

Tension
An applied force producing or tending
to produce tension in an elastic body.

Tensile force
A tensile or compressive force acting along the longitudinal axis
of a structural member and at the centroid of the cross section,
producing axial stress without bending, torsion or shear.

Axial force
Also called AXIAL LOAD
The act of shortening or state of being pushed together,
resulting in the reduction in size or volume of an elastic
body.

Compression
The internal resistance or reaction of an elastic body to
external forces applied to it. Equal to the ratio of force to area
and expressed in units of force per unit of cross-sectional area.

Stress
Also called UNIT STRESS
The axial stress that develops at the cross section of an
elastic body to resist the collinear tensile forces tending to
elongate it.

Tensile stress
The elongation of unit length of
material produces by a tensile stress.

Tensile strain
A measure of ductility of a material, expressed as the
percentage increase in length of a test specimen after in
tensile test.

Elongation
A measure of ductility of a material, expressed as the
percentage increase in cross-sectional area of a test
specimen after rupturing in a tensile test.

Reduction of area
The resistance of a material to longitudinal stress measured
by the minimum amount of longitudinal stress required to
rupture.

Tensile strength
The deformation of a body under the
action of an applied force.

Strain
Strain is a dimensionless quantity equal to
the ratio of the change in size and
shape to the original size and shape of
a stressed element.
An instrument for measuring minute deformation in test
specimen caused by tension, compression, bending or
twisting.

Stain gauge
Also called EXTENSOMETER
A coefficient of elasticity of material expressing the ratio of
longitudinal stress to the corresponding longitudinal strain
caused by the strain.

Young’s Modulus
The ratio of lateral strain to the corresponding longitudinal
strain in an elastic body under longitudinal stress.

Poisson’s Ratio
The axial stress that develops at the cross section of an
elastic body to resist the collinear compressive forces
tending to shorten it.

Compressive stress
The shortening of unit length of material
produced by a compressive stress.

Compressive strain
The lateral deformation produced in a body by an external
force that causes one part f the body to slide relative to an
adjacent part in a direction parallel to their contact.

Shear
An applied force producing or tending
to produce shear in the body.

Shear force
An internal force tangential to the surface on which it acts, developed by
a body in response to shear, shearing in a vertical plane necessarily
involves shearing n a horizontal plane and vise versa.

Shearing force
The force per unit area developed along a
section of an elastic body to resist a shear force.

Shearing stress
A coefficient elasticity of a material, expressing the ratio
between shearing stress and the corresponding shearing
strain produced by the strain.

Shear Modulus of Elasticity

Also called MODULUS OF RIGIDITY,
MODULUS OF TORSION
The bowing of an elastic body as an external force is applied
transversely to its length. It enables a load to be channeled
in a direction perpendicular to its application.

Bending
A force applied perpendicular to the length of a
structural member producing bending and shear.

Transverse force
The moment of a force system that causes
or tends to cause rotation or torsion.

Torque
The twisting of an elastic body about its longitudinal axis
caused by two equal and opposite torques producing
shearing in the body.

Torsion
The depth of concrete section measured from the
compression face to the centroid of the tension
reinforcement.

Effective length
The amount of concrete required to protect steel reinforcement
from fire and corrosion. Measured from the surface of the
reinforcement to outer surface of the concrete section.

Cover
The adhesive for per unit area f contact between
reinforcing bar and the surrounding concrete developed at
any section of a flexural member.

Bond stress
A bend or curve given to develop an equivalent embedment
length, used where there is insufficient room to develop in
adequate embedment length.

Hook
Any of various means as embedment length or hooked bars for
developing tension or compression in a reinforcing bar on each side
of critical section in order to prevent bond failure or splitting.

Anchorage
The section of flexural concrete member at a point of
maximum stress, a point of inflection or a point within the
span where tension bars are no longer needed to resist stress.

Critical section
A concrete in which the tension reinforcement theoretically
reaches its specified yield strength as the concrete in
compression reaches its assumed ultimate strain.

Balanced section
A rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer
transverse loads across spaces supporting elements.

Beam
The extent of space between two
supports of a structure.

Span
The distance between the inner faces of
the support of a span.

Clear span
The center to center distance between
the supports of a span.

Effective span
An external moment tending to cause part a structure to
rotate or bend, equal to the algebraic sum of the moments
about the neutral axis of the section under consideration.

Bending moment
The internal moment equal and opposite to a bending
moment, generated by a force couple to maintain
equilibrium of the section being considered

Resisting moment
The perpendicular distance a spanning member deviates form a true course
under transverse loading, increasing with load and span, and decreasing with an
increase in the moment of inertia of the section of the modulus of elasticity of
the material.

Deflection
An imaginary line passing through the centroid of the cross
section of a beam, other member subject to bending, along
which no bending stresses occur.

Neutral axis
A combination of compressive and tensile stresses developed at a
cross section of structural member to resist transverse force, having
maximum value at the surface furthest from the neutral axis.

Bending stress
A slight convex curvature intentionally built into beam,
girder, or truss to compensate for an anticipated
deflection.

Camber
An external shear force at a cross section of a beam or other
member subject to bending, equal to the algebraic sum of
transverse forces on one side of the section.

Transverse shear
The shearing stress developed along the cross section of a beam
to resist transverse shear having a maximum value at the
neutral axis and decreasing nonlinearly toward the outer faces.

Vertical shearing
The shearing stress developed to prevent slippage along the
longitudinal planes of a beam under transverse loading, equal
to any point to the vertical shearing stress at the point.

Horizontal shearing / longitudinal

shearing stress
A geometric property of a cross section, defined as the
moment of inertia of the section divided by the distance
from the neutral axis to the most remote surface.

Section of Modulus
The buckling of a structural member induced by
compressive stresses acting on slender portion insufficiently
rigid in the lateral direction.

Lateral buckling
Lines depicting the direction but not the
magnitude of the principal stresses in a beam.

Stress trajectories
Produce bending moments which vary
linearly between loads.

Concentrated loads
Produce parabolically varying moments.

Uniformly distributed loads

A net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically
upward on the left part f the structure being considered.

Positive shear
A net resultant of shear forces that acts vertically
downward on the left part of the structure being
considered.

Negative shear
A bending moment that produces moment that produces
concave curvature at a section of a structure.

Positive moment
A point which a structure changes curvature from convex t
concave r vise versa as it deflects under a transverse load.

Inflection point
A bending moment that produces a convex
curvature at a section f a structure.

Negative moment
A projecting beam supported at only
one fixed end.

Cantilever beam
A beam or other rigid structural member extending beyond a
fulcrum and supported by a balancing member or a
downward force behind the fulcrum.

cantilever
A simple beam extending beyond one f
its support.

Overhanging beam
A beam having both ends restrained
against translation and rotation.

Fixed end beam

A beam extending over more than 2 supports in order to
develop greater rigidity and smaller moments than a series
of simple beams having similar spans and loading.

Continuous Beam
A beam resisting on simple supports at both ends which
are free to rotate and have mo moment resistance.

Simple beam
The values of all reactions, shears, and
moments for a simple beam are
independent f its cross sectional shape
and material.