INTRODUCTION TO OP-AMP

UNIT–III
Intel Pentium®4 Processor

300mm Si wafer
• INTRODUCTION TO OP-AMP: The operational Amplifier, Block
diagram representation of a typical Op-Amp, schematic symbol,
Classification of IC’s, Types of IC’s, Manufacturers designation for Linear
IC’s, Package Types and temperature ranges, power supplies for IC’s,
electrical parameters, The Ideal OP-Amp, equivalent circuit of an Op-Amp,
Ideal voltage transfer curve, open-loop Op-Amp configurations, Ideal and
practical Op-Amp specifications, CMRR, PSRR, DC and AC characteristics,
Compensation techniques.
 TEXT BOOKS

 Op-Amps & Linear ICs by Ramakanth A. Gayakwad, PHI, 1987.

 Linear Integrated Circuits – D. Roy Chowdhury, New Age International (p)

Ltd, 2nd Edition, 2003.
 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (IC’s)

 Every electronic appliance we use in our day-to-day life, such as mobile phones, laptops,
refrigerators, computers, televisions and all other electrical and electronic devices are
manufactured with some simple or complex circuits.

 Integrated circuit or IC or microchip or chip is a microscopic electronic circuit array formed

by the fabrication of various electrical and electronic components (resistors, capacitors,
transistors, and so on) on a semiconductor material (silicon) wafer, which can perform
operations similar to the large discrete electronic circuits made of discrete electronic
components.

 As all these arrays of components, microscopic circuits and semiconductor wafer material
base are integrated together to form a single chip, hence, it is called as integrated circuit or
integrated chip or microchip.
 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (IC’s) Cont….
 Electronic circuits are developed using individual or discrete electronic components with
different sizes, such that the cost and size of these discrete circuits increase with the
number of components used in the circuit.

 To conquer this negative aspect, the integrated circuit technology was developed – Jack
Kilby of Texas Instruments developed the first IC or integrated circuit in the 1950s and
thereafter, Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor solved some practical problems of
this integrated circuit.

 The package is a case that surrounds the circuit material to protect it from corrosion or
physical damage and to allow for mounting of the electrical contacts connecting it to the
PCB.
 History

• Werner Jacobi, a German physicist and engineer applied the idea of integrating
electronic components on the same plate, developed and patented the first known
integrated transistor in 1949.

• Later few other people also proposed the idea and filled the patent for prototype IC.

• But this idea was not useful for the industry and could not be implemented.

• In the late 1958 three people from three U.S. companies came up with new ideas and
solved three basic problems, which hindered the manufacture of Integrated circuits. 
• Jack Kilby of Texas Instruments created the first prototype IC and patented the principle of
integration.

• Kurt Lenovac of Sprague Electric Company invented a way of electrically isolating

components on a semiconducting crystal. 

• Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor invented a way to connect to the IC

components. 

• With this idea Fairchild Semiconductor developed the first operational semiconductor IC.

• Now Texas Instruments which already the patent for Kilby’s invention started a patent war,
which finally settled in 1966 by the agreement of cross licensing.

• Thus there is no clear accord about the inventors of IC. Both Kilby and Noyce are regarded
as the pioneers of IC.
The Integrated Circuit (IC)

• An integrated circuit (IC) is a miniaturized, low cost electronic circuit consisting of

active and passive components fabricated together on a single crystal of silicon
• In 1959, Robert Noyce (Fairchild
• In 1958, Jack S. Kilby (Texas Semiconductor) demonstrated an IC
Instruments) showed that it was made in silicon using SiO2 as the
possible to make a simple IC in insulator and Al for the metallic
germanium. interconnects.

The first planar IC

(actual size: 0.06 in. diameter)
  
Jack Kilby Robert Noyce
 Classification of Integrated Circuits (ICs)

 Based on the intended application, the IC  are classified as analog integrated circuits, digital integrated
circuits and mixed integrated circuits.

Digital Integrated Circuits

 The integrated circuits that operate only at a few defined levels instead of operating over all levels of signal
amplitude are called as Digital ICs and these are designed by using multiple number of digital logic gates,
multiplexers, flip flops and other electronic components of circuits.

 These logic gates work with binary input data or digital input data, such as 0 (low or false or logic 0) and 1
(high or true or logic 1).

Analog Integrated Circuits

 The integrated circuits that operate over a continuous range of signal are called as Analog ICs. These are
subdivided as linear Integrated Circuits (Linear ICs) and Radio Frequency Integrated Circuits (RF ICs).

 The frequently used analog IC is an operational amplifier or simply called as an op-amp, similar to the
differential amplifier, but possesses a very high voltage gain
 Classification of Integrated Circuits (ICs) Cont…..
Mixed Integrated Circuits
The integrated circuits that are obtained by the combination of analog and digital ICs on a single chip are called as
Mixed ICs. These ICs functions as Digital to Analog converters, Analog to Digital converters (D/A and A/D
converters) and clock/timing ICs.
Based on the number of components used (typically based on the number of transistors used), they are as follows

Small-scale integration consists of only a few transistors (tens of transistors on a chip), these ICs played a critical role in
early aerospace projects.

Medium-scale integration consists of some hundreds of transistors on the IC chip developed in the 1960s and achieved
better economy and advantages compared to the SSI ICs.

Large-scale integration consists of thousands of transistors on the chip with almost the  same economy as medium scale
integration ICs. The first microprocessor, calculator chips and RAMs of 1Kbit developed in the 1970s  had below four
thousand transistors.

Very large-scale integration consists of transistors from hundreds to several billions in number.(Development period:
from 1980s to 2009)

Ultra large-scale integration consists of transistors in excess of more than one million, and later wafer-scale integration
(WSI), system on a chip (SoC) and three dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) were developed.
 Classification of Integrated Circuits (ICs) Cont…..

From the point of view of structural considerations, ICs can be divided as monolithic ICs, thick-thin film ICs
and hybrid ICs.
Monolithic ICs
 The monolithic ICs are most common type of IC. In the monolithic ICs, all the active and passive
components along with their interconnections are manufactured on a single silicon chip. In general, the
monolithic ICs has power limitations ; hence they are preferred only in low power applications.
 For slightly higher power applications, the thick-thin film ICs are employed. These are larger in size than
the monolithic ICs; but smaller in size than the discrete circuits.
Thick-thin film ICs
 With thick-thin film ICs, some of the passive components like resistors, capacitors are integrated, but the
components like BJT, diodes are connected as discrete components to complete the circuit.
 Thus, in general, thick-thin film circuits are the combinations of integrated and discrete components.
Hybrid ICs
 For high power applications, hybrid ICs are used. Hybrid ICs combine two or more monolithic ICs in one
package. They may combine monolithic ICs with thick- thin film circuits.
Advantages:
There are some advantages of integrated circuit (IC) which are given below,

 The integrated circuit (IC) can be easily replace but it can hardly repair, in case of failure.

 It has increased the operating speed due to an absence of parasitic and capacitance effect.

 The reduction in power consumption is achieved due to extremely small size of IC.

 The weight of an IC is very small as compared to entire discrete circuits.

 The IC is more reliable.

 The entire physical size of IC is extremely small than that of discrete circuit.

 It has low power consumption due to their smaller size.

 The temperature differences between components of a circuit are small.

 It has suitable for small signal operation.

Disadvantages:
There are some disadvantages of integrated circuit (IC) which are given below,

 The integrated circuit (IC) can be handle only limited amount of power.

 It is difficult to be achieved low temperature coefficient.

 The coils or indicators cannot be fabricated.

 Low noise and high voltage operation are not easily obtained.

 Inductors and transformers are needed connecting to exterior to the semiconductor chip, as it is not

possible to fabricate inductor and transformers on the semiconductor chip surface.

 The power dissipation is limited to 10 watts

 The inductors cannot be fabricated directly.

Applications and Uses of Integrated Circuits.

 Flip-flops.

 Logic gates.

 Timers.

 Counters.

 Multiplexers.

 Calculator chips.

 Memory chips.

 Clock chips.

 Microprocessors.

 Microcontrollers.
Differnet Linear ICs will be studied in LDIC
Course:

IC741 as Operational amplifier

IC 555 Timer

 PIN DIAGRAM OF LM741

• The numerals adjacent to the

terminals are pin numbers.
• For the 741 op-amp, pin 7 is a
positive supply pin and pin 4 is a
negative supply
Manufacturer’s Designation for Linear ICs
 Each manufacturer uses a specific code and assigns a specific type number to the ICs produced. For example, 741
an internally compensated op-amp originally manufactured by Fairchild is sold as μA741. Here μA represents the
identifying initials used by Fairchild. The codes used by some of the well-known manufacturers of
linear ICs are:
1) Fairchild
2) National semiconductor
3) Motorola
4) RCA
5) Texas Instruments
6) Signetics
7) Burr-Brown

 A number of manufacturers also produce popular ICs of the other manufacturers. For easy use, they usually
retain the original type number of the IC along with their identifying initials. For example, Fairchild original
μA741 is also manufactured by other manufacturers as follows:
1) National semiconductor LM741
2) Motorola MC1741
3) RCA CA3741
4)Texas Instruments SN52741
5)Signetics N5741
 Package types
Three basic types of linear IC packages are available.
1. The flat pack
2. The metal can or transistor pack
3. The dual-in-line package(DIP)
Flat pack:
The chip is enclosed in a rectangular ceramic case with terminal leads extending through the sides and ends. The flat pack
comes with 8,10,14 or more leads. These accommodate the power supplies inputs, outputs and several special connections
required to complete the circuit.

Metal can or Transistor pack:

The chip is encapsulated in a metal or plastic case. They are available in 3,5,8,10,or 12 pins. Most of the voltage regulator
ICs, such as the LM117 have 3 pins. Power op-amps and audio power amplifiers are usually available in 5-pin packages.
The metal can package is best suited for power amplifiers because metal is a good heat conductor and consequently has
better dissipation capability than the flat pack or DIP package. In addition, the metal can package permits the use of
external heat sinks. Most of general purpose of op-amps come in 8,10 or 12 pin packages.
Dual-in-line (DIP):

Most widely used package is DIP because it can be mounted easily. The chip is
mounted inside a plastic or ceramic case The 8-pin dual in line packages are
referred to as mini DIPs. The DIPs are also available with 12,14,16 and 20 pins.
If the no. of components integrated are increasing the no of pins also increase
to 40,64,-----

Temperature range of op-amp:

Military temperature range is _55o to 125o c or _55o to +85oc
Industrial temperature range is _20o to +85o c or _40o to +85oc
Commercial temperature range is 0o to +70o c or 0o to +75oc
Differential Amplifier

  Differential Amplifier is a dc-coupled amplifier that

amplifies the difference between two input signals.
 It is the building block of analog integrated circuits and 
operational amplifiers (op-amp).
 Transistorized Differential Amplifier
Rc1 = Rc2 and Re1 = Re2.

The magnitudes of supply voltages +Vcc and -Vee also same. If the input
voltages Vs1 and Vs2 are equal then emitter currents Ie1 and Ie2 are also
equal.

If Vin1 = Vin2 then Ie1 = Ie2.

Total emitter current is given as

Ie = Ie1 + Ie2

Ve = Vb – Vbe.

Vo1 = Vo2 = Vcc – IcRc assuming collector resistances Rc1 = Rc2 =Rc.
Configurations
 
Based on the methods of providing input and taking output, differential amplifiers can have four different configurations as
below.
1. Single Input Unbalanced Output
2. Single Input Balanced Output
3. Dual Input Unbalanced Output
4. Dual Input Balanced Output
Single Input Unbalanced Output
Single Input Balanced Output
Dual Input Unbalanced Output
Dual Input Balanced Output
 For effective operation, components on either sides should be
match properly.
 Input signals are applied at base of each transistor and output is
taken from both collector terminals. 
 There won’t be any unnecessary dc content in balanced output
as the dc contents in both outputs gets canceled each other.
 Vo = Ad(Vin1 – Vin2)
Where Ad = differential gain
Vin1, Vin2 = input voltages
Vin2 = Inverting Input voltage
Vin1 = Non-Inverting Input voltage

When Vin1 = Vin2, obviously the output will be zero i.e, differential
amplifier suppresses common mode signals
Block Diagram of Op Amp
There are four blocks.
 
Input Stage: The main function of Op Amp is, at first it creates a difference between the two input signals and then
amplify the differentiated signal. So in the Input Stage, the differential amplifier creates the differences. In this stage, the
differential amplifier also provides the high input impedance which is necessary for the operational amplifier. You can see
in this stage the dual input balanced output differential amplifier is used which increase the voltage for next stage operation.
 
Intermediate Stage: The output of the input stage is used as the input of the Intermediate Stage.  In this stage, the direct
coupling happens. So, in this stage, the DC voltage is greater than the ground potential or 0V.
 
Level Shifting Stage: As in this stage the shifting of voltage level happens that is why it is called Level Shifting Stage.
Here the emitter follower with a constant current source is applied.
 
Output Stage: In this stage, the push-pull amplifier is used. The output of the level shifting stage is given to the input of
the push-pull amplifier. The push-pull amplifier increases the output voltage and high current delivering capability of the
operational amplifier.
Fig. Shows a complete OPAMP circuit having input differential amplifiers with
balanced output, intermediate stage with unbalanced output, level shifter and
an output amplifier.
The schematic symbol of an op-amp is shown below.

Symbol of Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

The above shown symbol is the most widely used op-amp symbol for all electronic circuits.

V1 (Volts) – Non-inverting input voltage.

V2 (Volts) – Inverting input voltage.

V0 (Volts) – Output voltage

Open loop OPAMP Configuration:
In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection exists between
input and output terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not feedback in any
form as part of the input signal.
 In open loop configuration, The OPAMP functions as a high gain amplifier. There are
three open loop OPAMP configurations.
 The Inverting Amplifier
 The non-inverting amplifier
 The Differential Amplifier
The Inverting Amplifier:
 If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded
then it is called inverting amplifier. This configuration is shown in below figure.

 v1= 0, v2 = vin, vo = -Ad vin

 The negative sign indicates that the

output voltage is out of phase with
respect to input 180 ° or is of
opposite polarity. Thus the input
signal is amplified and inverted also.
The non-inverting amplifier:
 In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and
inverting terminal is ground as shown in figure.
 v1 = +vin v2 = 0 vo = +Ad vin
 This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at
the output.
The Differential Amplifier:
  Figure shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals vin1 and vin2
are applied to the positive and negative input terminals.
 v1 = vin1 and v2 = vin2, vo = Ad (vin1 - vin2 )

where, Ad is the open loop gain.

 Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the
between the two input signals, this
configuration is called the differential
amplifier.
 The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc input signals. The source resistance Rin1 and

Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance Ri. Therefore voltage
drop across these resistances can be assumed to be zero.
 In all there configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive
the output to saturation level. This is because of very high gain.
 Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP is either
negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative
saturation levels.
 Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications.
The various characteristics of an ideal Op-amp :
a) Infinite voltage gain :
It is denoted as AoL. It is the differential open loop gain and is infinite for an ideal Op Amp.
b) Infinite input impedance :
The input impedance is denoted as Rin and is infinite for an ideal Op Amp. This ensures that no current can flow into an ideal op-
amp.
c) Zero output impedance:
The output impedance is denoted as Ro and is zero for an ideal Op Amp. This ensures that the output voltage of the op-amp
remains same, irrespective of the value of the load resistance connected
d) Zero offset voltage :
The presence of the small output voltage though V 1 = V2 = 0 is called an offset voltage. It is zero for an ideal op-amp. This
ensures zero output for zero input signal voltage.
e) Infinite bandwidth :
The range of frequency over which the amplifier performance is satisfactory is called its bandwidth. The bandwidth of an ideal
op-amp is infinite. This means the operating frequency range is from 0 to ∞. This ensures that the gain of the op-amp will be
constant over the frequency range from d.c. (zero frequency) to infinite frequency. So op-amp can amplify d.c. as well as a.c.
signals.
f) Infinite CMRR :
The ratio of differential gain Ad and common mode gain A cm is defined as CMRR(Common Mode Rejection Ratio). Thus
infinite CMRR of an ideal op-amp ensures zero common mode gain. Due to this common mode noise output voltage is zero
for an ideal op-amp.
CMRR =Ad /Acm Ad = V0 / Vd Acm = V0 / Vcm
Vd = V1-V2 Vcm =( V1+V2)/2

g) Infinite slew rate :

This ensures that the changes in the output voltage occur simultaneously with the changes in the input voltage.
The slew rate is important parameter of Op Amp .When the input voltage applied is step type which changes
instantaneously then the output also must change rapidly as input changes. If output does not change with the same rate as
input then there occurs distortion in the output. Such a distortion is not desirable. Infinite slew rate indicates that output
changes simultaneously with the changes in the input voltage.
The parameter slew rate is actually defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage with time and expressed as

Its ideal value is infinite for the Op Amp.

h) No effect of temperature :
The characteristics of Op Amp do not change with temperature.
i) Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) :
The power supply rejection ratio is defined as the ratio of the change in input off set voltage due to the
change in supply voltage producing it, keeping other power supply voltage constant. It is also called power
supply sensitivity.
So if VEE is constant and due to change in Vcc, there is change in input offset voltage then PSRR is expressed
as

For a fixed cc, if there is change in VEE causing change in input offset voltage then,

It is expressed in mV/V and its ideal value is zero.

 Equivalent circuit of an op-amp

The circuit shows the op-amp parameters like input resistance,

output resistance, the open loop voltage gain in terms of circuit
components like Rin ,R0 etc. The op-amp amplifies the  difference
between the two inputs

For an Ideal Op-amp

Ri=∞Ω
Ro=0 Ω
AoL=Vo/Vd

Vd=Vo/∞=0
Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve:
 Ideal Voltage Transfer Curve – The ideal op-amp produces the output proportional to the difference between the two
input voltages. The graphical representation of this statement gives the voltage transfer curve. It is the graph of
output voltage Vo plotted against the input Voltage vd assuming gain constant. This graph is
called transfer characteristics,of the op-amp.
 Now the output voltage is proportional to difference input voltage but only upto the positive and negative
saturation are specified by the manufacturer.
 The curve would be almost vertical due to large values of op-amp gain.
 Thus note that the op-amp output voltage gets saturated at +V cc and – VEE and it can not produce output voltage more
than + Vcc and VEE. Practically saturation voltages +Vsat, and – Vsat are slightly less than +Vcc and – VEE.
For practical Op-amp Transfer curve:

For practical AoL≠ ∞, Ri≠∞ & Ro≠0

Practically AoL is finite for the op-Amp

Ex: For 741 IC, AoL=2*105

Saturation voltages are ±15v=Vo

Vo= AoL Vd

±Vsat=2*105 Vd = ±15v/ 2*105

Vd=±75μv
Hence practically until Vd is between ±75μv, the output will
vary linearly with input. But once Vd exceeds ±75μv, the
output is saturated for particular gain i.e for given data.
 Op-amp pin configuration:
Symbol of op-amp 8 pin DIP package of IC 741

Pin 1: Offset null.

Pin 2: Inverting input terminal.
Pin3: Non-inverting input terminal.
Pin 4: –VCC (negative voltage supply).

Pin 5: Offset null.

Pin 6: Output voltage.
Pin 7: +VCC (positive voltage supply).
Pin 8: No Connection.
 Different arrangements for obtaining positive and negative supply voltages for an op-amp

Resistor R should be greater than 10kΩ so that it does not draw

more current from the supply Vs. The two capacitors provide
decoupling of the power supply and range in value from 0.01μF
to 10μF.
Features of Op-amp 741 IC:

 Power Supply: Requires a Minimum voltage of 5V and can withstand upto 18V

 Input Impedance: About 2 megaohms

 Output impedance: About 75 ohms

 Voltage Gain: 200,000 for low frequencies

 Maximum Output Current: 20mA

 Recommended Output Load: Greater than 2 kiloohms

 Input Offset: Ranges between 2mV and 6mV

 Slew Rate: 0.5V/microsecond (It is the rate at which an Op-Amp can detect voltage changes)
Characteristics and performance parameters of Op-amp:
DC Characteristics
AC Characteristics

DC Characteristics

Input offset voltage: In spite of the use of the compensation techniques, it is found that the output voltage

may still not be zero with zero input voltage. This is due to unavoidable imbalances inside the op-amp and

one may have to apply a small voltage at the input terminals to make output voltage zero. This voltage is

called input offset voltage Vios. This is the voltage required to be applied at the input for making output

voltage to zero volts. It is the voltage that must be applied between the input terminals of an op-amp to

nullify the output. Since this voltage could be positive or negative its absolute value is listed on the data

sheet. For 741C, the maximum value is 6 mV.

Input offset current: The algebraic difference between the currents into the (-) input and (+) input is
referred to as input offset current. Bias current compensation will work efficiently if both the bias
currents IB+ and IB- are equal. The input transistors cannot be made identical. Hence there will be
difference in bias currents. This difference is called as input offset current Ios and can be written as
| Ios | = IB+ – IB- The absolute value sign indicates that there is no way to predict which of the bias
currents will be larger. Input offset current for BJT is 200nA. Input offset current for FET is 10pA. The
effect of Ios can be minimized by having the feedback resistor value to be small.
It is 200nA maximum for 741C.
Input bias current: The average of the currents entering into the (-) input and (+) input terminals of an
op-amp is called as input bias current.
In an ideal op-amp we assume that no current is drawn from the input terminals. However, practically,
input terminals do conduct a small value of dc current to bias the input transistors. Even though both the
transistors are identical, IB- and IB+ are not exactly equal due to internal imbalances between the two
inputs. IB= IB+ + IB- / 2 . Input bias current compensation:  IB for BJT is 500nA  IB for FET is 50pA. By
introducing compensation resistor at the non-inverting input terminal we can able to reduce the input bias
current. Rcomp=R1/ /Rf= (R1* Rf) / (R1+Rf)
Its value is 500nA for 741C.
Input resistance: This is the differential input resistance as seen at the either of the input terminals with the
other terminal connected to ground. For the 741C, the input resistance is 2MΩ.
Input capacitance: It is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either of the input terminal with the
other terminal connected ground. A typical value of C1 is 1.4pF.
Offset voltage adjustment range: A special feature of the 741 family op-amp is the provision of offset voltage
null capability. For 741C offset voltage adjustment range is ± 15mV.
Input voltage range: This is the common-mode voltage that can be applied to both input terminals without
disturbing the performance of an op-amp. For the 741C, the range of the input common-mode voltage is ±13V.
Common-mode configuration is used only for test purpose to determine the degree of matching between the
inverting and non-inverting terminals.

Common-mode rejection ratio: The relative sensitivity of an op-amp to a difference signal as compared to a
common-mode signal is called common-mode rejection ratio(CMRR) and gives the figure of merit ρ for the
differential amplifier. So, CMRR is given by; ρ = | ADM/ACM| and is usually expressed in decibels(dB). For
741C, CMRR is typically 90dB. CMRR is usually measured under the test condition that the input source
resistance RS ≤10KΩ. The higher the value of CMRR, better is the matching between the two input terminals
and smaller the output common-mode voltage.
Supply voltage rejection ratio: The change in an op-amp’s input offset voltage due to variations in supply

voltage is called the supply voltage rejection ratio(SVRR). Some manufacturers use terms like power supply

rejection ratio(PSRR) or power supply sensitivity(PSS). These terms are expressed in microvolts per volt or in

decibels. For 741C, SVRR = 150µV/V. Obviously , lower the value of SVRR, better the op-amp.

Large signal voltage gain: An op-amp amplifies the difference voltage between the two input terminals and,

its voltage gain is defined as, Voltage gain = output voltage / differential input voltage . Since the amplitude of

the output signal is much larger than the input signal, the voltage gain is commonly referred as large signal

voltage gain. For 741C, typical value is,2,00,000 under test conditions, RL≥ 2kΩ and V0 = ± 10V.

Output voltage swing: The output voltage swing indicates the value of positive and negative saturation

voltages of an op-amp, and never exceeds the supply voltage V+ and V—. For 741C, the output voltage swing

is guaranteed to be between +13V and —13V for RL≥ 2kΩ.

Output resistance: Output resistance R0 is the resistance measured between the output terminal of

the op-amp and the ground. It is 75Ω for the 741C op-amp.

Output short circuit current: This is the current that may flow if an op-amp gets shorted

accidentally and is generally high. The op-amp must be provided with short circuit protection. The

short circuit current Isc for 741C is 25mA. This means that the built-in short circuit protection is

guaranteed to withstand 25mA of current.

Supply current: Supply current Is is the current drawn by the op-amp from the power supply. It is

2.8mA for 741C.

Power consumption: This gives the amount of quiescent power(Vi = 0V) that must be consumed

by the op-amp so as to operate properly. It is 85mW for 741C.

Thermal drift: Bias current, offset current and offset voltage change with temperature. A circuit carefully

mulled at 25 degree Celsius may not remain so when the temperature rises to 35 degree Celsius. This is called

drift. Often, offset current drift is expressed in nA/0C and offset voltage drift in mV/0C. These indicate the

change in offset for each degree Celsius change in temperature. There are very few circuit techniques that can

be used to minimize the effect of drift. Careful printed circuit board layout must be equal be used to keep op-

amps away from source of heat. Forced air cooling may be used to stabilize the ambient temperature.
AC characteristics: For small signal sinusoidal applications the a.c. characteristics are 1. Frequency response
2. Slew rate 3. Gain bandwidth product

High frequency model of op-amp

Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)

. Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP) gives a measure of the performance of an Op Amp at higher
frequencies. A typical GBP value might be 1 MHz or 1000000 Hz. This means that at 1 MHz, the
amplifier gain has dropped to 1. At any frequency you are interested in, the gain can be calculated
from Gain = GBP / Frequency
Slew rate
 The slew rate is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage caused by a step input voltage and is usually
specified in V/ µs.

 For example, a 1V/ µs slew rate means that the output rises or falls by 1V in one microsecond. An ideal slew rate is infinite
which means that op-amp’s output voltage should change instantaneously in response to input step voltage.

 The slew rate improves with higher closed loop gain and dc supply voltage. It is also a function to temperature and generally
decreases with an increase in temperature.

 There is usually a capacitor within or outside an op-amp to prevent oscillation. It is this capacitor which prevents the output
voltage from responding immediately to a fast-changing input. The rate at which the voltage across the capacitor Vc
increases is given by
dVc/dt=I/C
here I is the maximum current supplied by op-amp to the capacitor C.
 This means that for obtaining faster slew rate, op-amp should have either a higher current or a small compensating capacitor.
For the 741 C, the maximum internal capacitor charging current is limited to about 15µA.
 So the slew rate (SR) of 741 C is,
SR = │max = Imax / C = 15 µA/30 pF = 0.5 V/ µs
Slew rate limits the response speed of all large signal waveshapes.

For a sinewave input, this effect of slew rate limiting can be calculated as follows
Consider a voltage follower shown in fig. The input is large amplitude, high frequency
sine wave.

If Vo = Vm sin wt
Then output Vo = Vm sin wt
The rate of change of output is given by
dVo/dt = Vm w cos wt
 The maximum rate of change of the output occurs when cos wt = 1.
That is,
SR = │max = w Vm
Therefore, slew rate = 2π f Vm V/s
= 2π f Vm / 106 V/ µs
Thus maximum frequency fmax at which an undistorted output voltage of peak value Vm is given by f max = Slew rate/6.28 Vm

Problem1: How fast can the output of an op-amp change by 20V, if its slew rate is 5 V/ µs
Sol:
Given,
Slew Rate dVo/dt = 5 V/ µs
Change in output voltage dVo = Vo2-Vo1 = 20V
Time taken for output voltage to change dt = t2-t1 = ?
dVo/dt = 5 V/ µs
20/(t2-t1) = 5
t2-t1 = 4 µs
Problem2: An op-amp has a slew rate of 5 V/ µs. If the peak output is 25V. what is the Bandwidth ?

Sol:
Slew rate of op-amp = 5 V/ µs
Peak output voltage (Vp) = 25v
Band width = ?
Band width = slew rate/ 2πVp =

Problem3: For an op-amp PSSR = 30dB(gain), CMRR= 110, differential mode gain Ad = 125. The output stage
voltage changes by 30V in 5 seconds. Calculate i) Number value of PSSR ii) Common mode gain iii) slew rate of
op-amp.

Sol:
i) Given Power Supply Rection Ratio (PSSR) in dB = 30 dB
We know that 20 log (ΔVio/ΔV) = 30dB
log(ΔVio/ΔV) =
ΔVio/ΔV = mV/V
ii) Common mode rejection Ratio = 110
Differential gain (Ad) =125
CMRR = Ad/Acm
Acm = Ad/CMRR = 125/110 = 1.136

iii) Change in output voltage (dVo) = 30V

Time change (dt) = 5 seconds

Slew rate = dVo/dt = 20/5 = 4 v/s

Frequency response:

Open loop voltage gain of an op-amp with only one

corner frequency
The magnitude and phase angle characteristics are

 1. For frequency f<< f1 the magnitude of the gain is 20 log AOL in dB.

2. At frequency f = f1 the gain in 3 dB down from the dc value of AOL in dB. This frequency f1 is called corner
frequency.

3. For f>> f1 the gain roll-off at the rate off -20dB/decade or -6dB/decade.

From phase characteristics that the phase angle is zero, -45 o,-90o at f=0,f1 & ∞ respectively. So maximum of 90o can
occur in an op-amp with a single capacitor.
The voltage transfer function in s-domain can be written as

A practical op-amp, has number of stages and each stage produces a capacitive component. Thus, due to a number of RC
pole pairs, there will be a number of different break frequencies. The transfer function of an op-amp with three break
frequencies can be assumed as
Frequency compensation
In applications where one desire large bandwidth and lower closed loop gain, suitable compensation techniques
are used. Two types of compensating techniques are used
1) External compensation 2) Internal compensation
External compensation: 1) Dominant pole compensation 2) Pole -zero (lag) compensation

Dominant-pole compensation:-
Advantages :
Noise Immunity is more i.e noise frequency beyond band width are eliminated.
Disadvantages:
Bandwidth reduces
Pole- zero compensation