CHME 471

WEEK 5
Selection of Unit Processes for the removal
of Specific Parameters
Parameter Treatment Options
Algae Powdered activated carbon adsorption, microscreens, rapid filtration, Dissolved Air Flottation
Colour Activated carbon adsorption, coagulation, flocculation, filtration
Floating matter Coarse Screens
Hardness Coagulation, filtration, lime softening
Coliforms
> 100/100 ml Pre-chlorination, coagulation, filtration post-chlorination
> 20/100 ml Coagulation, filtration post-chlorination
< 20/100 ml Post-chlorination
Hydrogen Sulphide Aeration
Fe and Mn Pre-chlorination, aeration, coagulation, filtration
Odour and taste Aeration, activated carbon adsorption
Suspended solids Fine screens, micro-screens
Trace organics Activated carbon adsorption
Turbidity Coagulation, sedimentation, post-chlorination
TREATMENT CONSIDERATIONS AND METHODS
Chemical Pre-treatment
• Two pre-treatment processes are generally employed.
• Pre-chlorination is applied when there is a high coliform count. Most efficient in
waters with low turbidity and iron and manganese content. Chlorine readily oxidises
and precipitates iron and manganese. High doses are used, i.e. up to 5 mg/L.

• Activated carbon is used to reduce colour and remove odour and organic
compounds. Powdered activated carbon is added to water as a slurry just before
coagulation or sand filtration at doses up to 20 mg/L. The sand filter retains the
carbon where it adsorbs the problematic compounds. Adding before coagulation
increases the contact time.
• Pre-ozonation is also used as an alternative to PAC treatment on its own or
coupled with GAC treatment.
Granular Activated Carbon
Coagulation
• Introduction
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GVCWwWCLY7w
Coagulation
• After fine screening used, most of the remaining suspended solids,
very fine particles (<10 um), such as clays, metal oxides, proteins and
micro-organisms will be colloidal in nature.
• They have negligible settling velocities.
• Majority of the particles are negatively charged.
• Selection of a suitable coagulant depends on the nature on the
particles and their electrical charge. Coagulant neutralises these
particles, they agglomerate and settle.
Coagulation
Coagulation is a chemical process to remove turbidity and color
producing material that is mostly colloidal particles (1 to 200
millimicrons, mm) such as algae, bacteria, organic and inorganic
substances and clay particles.
Colloid
• colloid
• [ˈkɒlɔɪd]
• NOUN
1.a homogeneous non-crystalline substance consisting of large
molecules or ultramicroscopic particles of one substance
dispersed through a second substance. Colloids include gels,
sols, and emulsions; the particles do not settle, and cannot be
separated out by ordinary filtering or centrifuging like those in a
suspension.
Coagulation
 Coagulants

 FeCl3
 Fe2(SO4)3
 Alum Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
 Organic coagulants: polyamin, polydadmac (cationic)

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Flocculation

Source: Water Treatment Principles and Design, JMM 1985

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 Jar tests

•Optimisation
• Jar tests
• Coagulant Dose rate
• pH
• Polymer Dose rate

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 Jar Test

• It is common to use six 2 L Gator jars with various dosages of chemical

(alum, lime, etc); and one jar as the control without coagulant.
• Appropriate coagulant dosages are added to the 2 L samples before the
rapid mixing at 100 revolution per minute (rpm) for 2 min.
• Then the samples and the control were flocculated at 20 rpm for 20 or more
minutes and allow to settle.
• Water temperature, floc size, settling characteristics (velocity, etc.), color of
supernatant, pH, etc. should be recorded.
Ref: Jar Test Apparatus - Flocculator - Jar Tester Manufacturer Supplier India (yatherm.com)
P10-9 Jar test experiment - YouTube
pH and Dose
• pH and dosage are the two important factors in coagulant addition.
The optimum dose and pH can be determined by lab testing.
• Optimum pH range for allum is between 5.5 and 7.7 with adequate
coagulation, possible between pH 5 and 9 in some cases.
• Ferric salts have a wider pH application range pH between 4 to 9.
Flocculation
• Macroscale Flocculation:
• Mixing is the major flocculation mechanism for particles greater than 1 um in
diameter.
• Also known as orthokinetic flocculation.
• Achieved by mechanical mixing.

• Because the floc particles have different sizes, they settle at different rates.
Differences in the settling velocities cause the particles to collide and
flocculate.
• Addition of chemicals to improve flocculation is common. The addition of a
polymer after a metal salt is most effective, i.e. 5-10 min after.
Flocculation
• Uncharged and negatively charged polymers are used as flocculant
aids and their purpose is to build stronger floc. Activated silica and
sodium silicate are common flocculant aids.
• Micro-sand is also added between coagulant and flocculant addition
to accelerate the settling process
Mixing Theory and Practice
• Coagulation requires very high velocity gradients
• Flocculation requires a velocity gradient high enough to cause particle
contact and to keep the flocs from settling but low enough to prevent
the flocs from tearing apart.
• Different chemicals require different velocity gradients.
Alkalinity for Coagulation
Alkalinity for Coagulation
Alkalinity for Coagulation
Lime - Hydrated Lime
Water Chemistry and Nature
• Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) in the air is in equilibrium with natural waters.
Since CO2 is increasing in the atmosphere there is net movement into
bodies of water. The dissolved CO2 reacts with water to produce
carbonic acid (H2 CO3 ), which is in equilibrium with bicarbonate
(HCO3- and H+). Carbonate (CO32-) reacts with water to also form
carbonic acid.
Water Chemistry and Nature
• Carbonate also reacts with calcium ions (Ca2+) to form calcium
carbonate (CaCO3 ). All of the reactions are reversible. When extra
acid (H+) or base (OH- ) is added to the water, the reactions maintain
the pH by incorporating those ions. As such this system serves to
buffer natural waters from changes in pH. Too much acid or base
exceeds the buffering capacity of the water and the pH will change, as
is now occurring in the ocean due to excess CO2 .
Water Chemistry and Nature
Water Chemistry and Nature
Example
Solution
Example
Solution
Example
Given that liquid alum is used as a coagulant. Specific gravity of alum is
1.33. One gallon of alum weighs 11.09 pounds (5.03 kg) and contains
5.34 pounds (5.42 kg) of dry alum. Determine:
(a) the alum concentration,
(b) mL of liquid alum required to prepare a 100 mL solution of 20,000
mg/L alum concentration,
(c) the dosage concentration of 1 mL of stock solution in a 2000 mL
Gator jar sample
Solution
Solution
Mixing
Mixing is an important operation for the coagulation process. In
practice, rapid mixing provides complete and uniform dispersion of a
chemical added to the water. Then follows a slow mixing for
flocculation (particle aggregation). Recent studies indicate the optimum
time of rapid mixing is a few minutes.
Types of mixing include propeller, turbine, paddle, pneumatic, and
hydraulic mixers.
For a water treatment plant, mixing is used for coagulation and
flocculation, and chlorine disinfection.
Mixing is also used for biological treatment processes for wastewater.
Mixing
Rapid mixing for coagulant in raw water and activated-sludge process in
wastewater treatment are complete mixing.
Flocculation basins after rapid mixing are designed based on an ideal
plug flow using first-order kinetics.
It is very difficult to achieve an ideal plug flow.
In practice, baffles are installed to reduce short-circuiting.
Mixing
The time of contact or detention time in the basin can be determined
by:
Example
Solution
Power Requirements for Mixing

Mixing Rapid mixing after coagulant dosing is an important design

parameter. The coagulant must be uniformly mixed with the raw water.
In case mixing is poor, local under- and overdosing occurs, resulting in
poor performance of the process.
The parameter expressing mixing intensity is called the velocity
gradient or G-value.

Ref. Coagulation-and-flocculation-1.pdf (tudelft.nl)

Power Requirements for Mixing
The parameter expressing mixing intensity is called the velocity
gradient or G-value.
Power Requirements for Mixing
The equation is used to calculate the mechanical power required to
facilitate rapid mixing. If a chemical is injected through orifices with
mixing times of approximately 1.0 s, the G value is in the range of 700
to 1000/s. In practice, G values of 3000 to 5000/s are preferable for
rapid mixing (ASCE and AWWA, 1990).
Power Requirements for Mixing
A rapid mixing tank is 1m x 1m x 1.2 m. The power input is 746
W (1 hp). Find the G value at a temperature of 15°C.
Power Requirements for Mixing
The equation is the standard design guideline used to calculate the
mechanical power required to facilitate rapid mixing.
Camp (1968) claimed that rapid mixing at G values of 500 to 1000/s for
1 to 2 min produced essentially complete flocculation and no further
benefit for prolonged rapid mixing.
For rapid mixing the product of Gt should be 30,000 to 60,000 with t
(time) generally 60 to 120 s.
Flocculation
After rapid mixing, the water is passed through the flocculation basin. It
is intended to mix the water to permit agglomeration of turbidity
settled particles (solid capture) into larger flocs which would have a
mean velocity gradient ranging 20 to 70 s-1 for a contact time of 20 to
30 min taking place in the flocculation basin.
A basin is usually designed in four compartments (ASCE and AWWA
1990).
Flocculation Basin | Water Treatment | Waste Water Treatment | Wate
r Treatment Process & Plant Design (thewatertreatments.com)
Mixing
The time of contact or detention time in the basin can be determined
by:
Flocculation
The conduits between the rapid mixing tank and the flocculation basin
should maintain G values of 100 to 150 s-1 before entering the basin.

Environetics | Clearwell Baffles (environeticsinc.com)

Flocculation
For paddle flocculators, the useful power input of an impeller is directly
related to the drag force of the paddles (F). The drag force is the
product of the coefficient of drag (Cd ) and the impeller force (Fi ).

Flocculator2.jpg (600×400) (hubspot.net)

Flocculation
The drag force can be expressed as (Fair et al., 1968):
Flocculation
Flocculation
Example 1: In a baffled basin with detention time of 25 min. Estimate
head loss if G is 30/s, µ= 2.359 x10-5 lbs/ft2 at T =60°F (Table 4.1b).
Sedimentation
• Separation of flocs and particulates by gravity.
WSO Water Treatment Grade 1: Sedimentation & Clarifiers, Ch. 9 - YouT
ube

• DAF, i.e. dissolved air floatation,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0neTyDvk-ek

How Primary Clarifiers Work - YouTube

Sedimentation
Sedimentation is one of the most basic processes of water treatment.
Sedimentation tank (or basin) following coagulation— flocculatiaon, is
one of the most commonly used in water treatment facilities.

Sedimentation is a solid—liquid separation by gravitational settling.

There are four types of sedimentation: discrete particle settling (type
1), flocculant settling (type 2), hindered settling (type 3), and
compression settling (type 4).
Sedimentation
Sedimentation
Sedimentation
Example
Sedimentation: Overflow Rate
For sizing the sedimentation basin, the traditional criteria used are
based on
• overflow rate,
• detention time,
• weir loading rate, and
• horizontal velocity.
Sedimentation: Overflow Rate
The theoretical detention time is computed from the volume of the
basin divided by average daily flow (plug flow theory):
Sedimentation: Overflow Rate
The overflow rate is a standard design parameter which can be
determined from discrete particle settling analysis. The overflow rate or
surface loading rate is calculated by dividing the average daily flow by
the total area of the sedimentation basin as follows:
Sedimentation: Overflow Rate
For alum coagulation, u is usually in the range of 40 to 60 m3 /(m2 ⋅ d)
(or m/d) for turbidity and color removal.
The overflow rate in wastewater treatment is lower, ranging from 10 to
60 m/d.
All particles having a settling velocity greater than the overflow rate will
settle and be removed. It should be noted that rapid particle density
changes due to temperature, solid concentration, or salinity can induce
density current which can cause severe short-circuiting in horizontal
tanks (Hudson, 1972).
Example
A water treatment plant has four clarifiers treating 0.175 m3 /s of
water. Each clarifier is 4.88 m wide, 24.4 m long, and 4.57 m deep.
Determine:
(a) the detention time,
(b) (b) overflow rate
Example: Solution
Example: Solution
Sedimentation: Inclined settlers
ACTIFLO

Actiflo
® Turbo - The Ultimate Clarifier - Veolia Water Technologies UK - YouTub
e
Sedimentation: Inclined settlers
Inclined (tube and plate) settlers are sedimentation units that have
been used for more than two decades.
A large number of smaller diameter (20 to 50 mm) tubes are nested
together to act as a single unit and inclined with various angles (7 to
60). The typical separation distance between inclined plates for
unhindered settling is 5 cm with inclines of 1 to 2 m height. The solids
or flocs settle by gravitational force. It is not necessary to use tubes and
can take various forms or plates also.
Sedimentation: Inclined settlers
• The materials are lightweight, generally PVC or ABC plastic (1 m 3 m
in size).
• Tube settlers have proved as effective units. However, there is a
tendency of clogging.
• Inclined settling systems can be designed as cocurrent,
countercurrent, and cross-flow. Comprehensive theoretical analyses
of various flow geometries have been discussed by Yao (1976).
Sedimentation: Inclined settlers
The flow velocity of the settler module (v) and the surface loading rate for the inclined settler (u)
(Fig. 5.6) are calculated as (James M. Montgomery Consulting Engineering, 1985):
Example: Homework
Two flocculators treat 3.0 m3 /s and remove flocs large than 0.02 mm.
The settling velocity of the 0.02 mm flocs is measured in the laboratory
as 0.22 mm/s at 15°C. Tube settlers of 50.6 mm square honeycombs are
inclined at a 50° angle, and its vertical height is 1.22 m. Determine the
basin area required for the settler module and the size of each
flocculator at 15°C.
Filtration
• The conventional filtration process is probably the most important
single unit operation of all the water treatment processes.
• It is an operation process to separate suspended matter from water
by flowing it through porous filter medium or media.
• The filter media may be silica sand, anthracite coal, diatomaceous
earth, garnet, ilmenite, or finely woven fabric.
• Dual-media filters (sand and anthracite, activated carbon, or granite)
give more benefits than single-media filters and became more
popular; even triple-media filters have been used.
Filtration
• Filtration usually follows the coagulation–flocculation–sedimentation
processes. However, for some water treatment, direct filtration is
used due to the high quality of raw water.
• After clarification, only fine solids and soluble material are left in the
water, i.e. max concentration < 10 mg/L.
• Micro-strainers can not remove particles < 60 um.
• Classified as either slow or rapid and can be operated by gravity or
water can be forced through the medium under pressure, significantly
increasing the flow through rate.
Pressurised filters

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Filtration
• The filters are also classified by allowing loading rate. Loading rate is
the flow rate of water applied to the unit area of the filter. It is the
same value as the flow velocity approaching the filter surface and can
be determined by:

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Filtration
• On the basis of loading rate, the filters are classified as slow sand
filters, rapid sand filters, and high-rate sand filters.
• With each type of filter medium or media, there are typical design
criteria for the range of loading rate, effective size, uniform
coefficient, minimum depth requirements, and backwash rate.
• The typical loading rate for rapid sand filters is 120 m3 /(m2 ⋅ d) [83 L/
(m2 ⋅ min) or 2 gpm/ft2 ].
• For high-rate filters, the loading rate may be four to five times this
rate.

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Filtration
• Rapid Sand Filter
• Open tap units operated by gravity.
• The gaps between the sand particles allow water through but captures the suspended
solids.
• Apart from staining particles out of suspension, other removal processes include
chemical and physical adsorption, sedimentation and adhesion.
• Slow Sand Filtration
• Employ much finer sand
• Biological Activity in addition to physical separation
• Costly – Capital and operation
• Recommended for the treatment of high quality surface and ground waters
• A layer of GAC is also included to remove trace organics
Rapid Sand Filter

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NSPWFDOpBjM

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uf8Rn_W6sys
• All filters need to clean out the medium by backwash after a certain
period (most are based on head loss) of filtration.
• Backwash
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7gUmj-bBAV4
Example
A city is to install rapid sand filters downstream of the clarifiers. The
design loading rate is selected to be 160 m3 /(m2 ⋅ d) The design
capacity of the waterworks is 0.35 m3 /s The maximum surface per
filter is limited to 50 m2 . Design the number and size of filters and
calculate the normal filtration rate.

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Solution

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Filtration: Filter medium size
Before a filter medium is selected, a grain size distribution analysis
should be performed. The sieve size and percentage passing by weight
relationships are plotted on logarithmic-probability paper. A straight
line can be drawn to determine the geometric mean size (mg ) and
geometric standard deviation size (g ).
The most common parameters used in the United States to
characterize the filter medium are effective size (ES) and uniformity
coefficient (UC) of medium size distribution.

84
Filtration: Filter medium size
The ES is that the grain size for which 10% of the grain (d10) are smaller
by weight. The UC is the ratio of the 60-percentile (d60) to the 10-
percentile. They can be written as (Fair et al., 1968; Cleasby, 1990):

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Example:
A sieve analysis curve of a typical filter sand gives d10 0.54 mm and
d60 0.74 mm. What are its uniformity coefficient and d90?

86
Solution

87
 Filtration: Mixed Media
Mixed media are popular for filtration units. For the improvement of
the process performance, activated carbon or anthracite is added on
the top of the sand bed.
The approximate specific gravity (s) of ilmenite sand, silica sand,
anthracite, and water are 4.2, 2.6, 1.5, and 1.0, respectively.

Ilmenite-155036.jpg (800×722) (wikimedia.org)

88
titanium-minerals-rutile-sand.jpg (1200×800) (lkabminerals.com)
Filtration: Mixed Media
For equal settling velocities, the particle sizes for media of different
specific gravity can be computed by

89
Example
Estimate the particle sizes of ilmenite (specific gravity 4.2) and
anthracite (specific gravity 1.5) which have same settling velocity of
silica sand 0.60 mm in diameter (specific gravity 2.6).

90
Solution

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